湖北省巴东县小神农架地区川金丝猴的种群调查

The population activities of golden monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana) in the Xiaoshennongjia of Badong county,Hubei Province had been surveyed by consecutively tracing and grossly counting from 0ct.2000 to June 2002.The result indicated the anmount the golden monkey that iuhabit in here about 600-800 individuals.They moved clockwise in a circular track.236 golden monkeys of 2 groups had recorded by video camera during survey in Apr.2001,among them there were 59.05% adult and 40.95% of underage,the rate was 1:0.9,the sex ratio of adult was 1:1.38 (male:female).117 individuals of three different groups were recorded in random in 2002,among them were 56.41% of adult and 43.59% underage,the rate was 1:0.67,the sex ratio of adult was 1:1.2.The young were hem from the beginning the month of March.     

Testing the Cognition of the Forgotten Colobines: A First Look at Golden Snub-Nosed Monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana)

Although our understanding of primate cognition is growing rapidly, little is known about the cognition of colobines. Here we report the results of a set of 5 experiments on colobine cognition using 17 golden snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana). These monkeys are folivores that form multilevel societies with groups of hundreds of individuals and relatively high fission–fusion dynamics. We investigated their sensitivity to human social cues and ability to inhibit impulsive behavioral responses. In three sociocognitive experiments we found that, like most other primates, they follow the gaze direction of a human demonstrator but there is no evidence that they use others’ social cues in a cooperative task to locate hidden food or in a competitive task to steal forbidden food. In two inhibitory control experiments, we found that the monkeys showed a low level of inhibitory control, comparable to that of other folivorous primates. These results suggest that phylogeny and folivory might have been important in shaping the cognition of golden snub-nosed monkeys. Moreover, this species’ large group size and relatively high fission–fusion dynamics may not have imposed a significant social challenge to their cognition, as social interactions occur mainly within basic social units.     

Validation of a Fecal T3 Metabolite Assay for Measuring Energetics in Wild Golden Snub-Nosed Monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana)

International Journal of Primatology -     

A Proximity-Based Social Network of a Group of Sichuan Snub-Nosed Monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana)

Studies of spatial proximity between individuals are important for an understanding of social structure because animals are more likely to interact with individuals in close spatial proximity. Here, we apply social network analysis to proximity data collected between 2001 and 2003 from an individually identified, provisioned, free-ranging band of Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana) in the Qinling Mountains, central China. We aimed to quantify the social network structure and to gain insight into each individual’s position within the social network. The overall network connectivity of the study band was sparse, with a low group density of 0.17. We identified nine one-male-multifemale units (OMUs) in the study band using hierarchical cluster analysis, which confirms that this species forms a multilevel society in its natural habitat. Based on sex differences in eigenvector and betweenness centralities, adult females have more important social roles than males. Among females, lactating females scored higher betweenness and eigenvector centralities than other females. However, our results do not suggest the existence of key individual(s) in the social network of the study band. The global clustering coefficient characteristic of the band was 0.3?±?0.1, with little variation between individuals, suggesting that the removal or death of any specific individual would not significantly disrupt its general network structure. Our results also show that proximity commonly occurs among unit members, but can also occur between females of different OMUs. These observations suggest that snub-nosed monkeys have a loose-knit or fluid rather than a rigid female-bonded social system, which may be a common trend for species living in multilevel societies.     

Social Organization and Range Use in the Yunnan Snub-Nosed Monkey Rhinopithecus bieti

We studied social organization, behavior, and range use of the Yunnan snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus bieti) at Wuyapiya (99°12E, 28°30N, the People's Republic of China) over 12 months between May 1992 and June 1994. The Wuyapiya band contained 175 members and had two levels of social organization. At one level, the monkeys formed multifemale, one-male units (OMUs) similar to those of many other colobines. At another level, 15 to 18 OMUs traveled together in a cohesive band. Unlike the bands of other species of Rhinopithecus, the Wuyapiya band of R. bieti did not show seasonal fission–fusion, although some social behavior, such as male–male aggression, was seasonal. With regard to range use, the Wuyapiya band had a large home range and long daily travel distances compared with other colobines. Minimum range size in 1 year at Wuyapiya is 16.25 km ² , although there is no asymptote for range size as a function of observation time. Range size for the Wuyapiya band is 25.25 km ² over the 2-year study and appeared to cover 100 km ² between 1985 and 1994. The primary food of R. bieti at Wuyapiya is lichens, which are ubiquitous in fir trees. The multitiered social organization of R. bieti appears to result from the interaction of food resource characters with the forces of mate competition, with band sizes based on female responses to the spatial and temporal characteristics of lichens and subdivisions within bands based on male competition for mates.     

Sex differences in habitat use,positional behavior,and gaits of Golden Snub-Nosed Monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana) in the Qinling Mountains,Shaanxi, China

Primates - Studies of positional behavior, gait, and habitat use are important for understanding how animals adapt to the challenges of their environment. In turn, this information is useful for...     

Market powers predict reciprocal grooming in golden snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana)

Social grooming is a common form of affiliative behavior in primates. Biological market theory suggests that grooming can be traded either for grooming or other social commodities and services. When no other services are exchanged, grooming is predicted to be approximately reciprocated within a dyad. In contrast, the amount of reciprocal grooming should decrease as other offered services increase. We studied grooming patterns between polygamous male and female in golden snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana) from the Qinling Mountains of central China and found that about 29.7% of grooming bouts were reciprocated. However, the durations of grooming bouts offered and returned was asymmetrical within dyads. In bisexual dyads, more grooming was initiated by females than males, which became more pronounced as the number of females per one-male unit increased. The rate of copulation per day for each female was positively correlated with the total duration of grooming time females invested in males.. Females without an infant (non-mothers) directed more grooming towards females with an infant (mothers) and were significantly more likely to be non-reciprocated. There was a significant negative relationship between non-mother and mother grooming duration and the rate of infants per female in each one-male unit. High-ranking females also received more grooming from low-ranking females than vice versa. The rate of food-related aggressive interactions was per day for low-ranking females was negatively correlated with the duration of grooming that low-ranking females gave to high-ranking females. Our results showed that grooming reciprocation in R. roxellana was discrepancy. This investment-reciprocity rate could be explained by the exchange of other social services in lieu of grooming.     

Assessment of Habitat Fragmentation and Corridors for an Isolated Subspecies of the Sichuan Golden Snub-Nosed Monkey, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Rhinopithecus roxellana hubeiensis</Emphasis>

Understanding habitat quality and landscape connectivity and exploring corridors connecting habitat patches are crucial for conservation, particularly for species distributed among isolated populations. The Sichuan golden snub-nosed monkey, Rhinopithecus roxellana, is an Endangered primate species endemic to mountainous forests in China. Its easternmost distribution lies in the Shennongjia area, which harbors an isolated subspecies, R. roxellana hubeiensis. Unfortunately, it has experienced significant habitat loss, fragmentation, and dramatic population decline in recent decades, primarily due to increased human disturbance. To quantify habitat quality, identify suitable habitat patches, and detect possible linkages among these patches for R. roxellana hubeiensis, we conducted habitat suitability assessments and landscape connectivity analyses in the Shennongjia area based on a set of environmental factors. We created a habitat quality model and a movement cost surface for the Shennongjia area based on a habitat suitability index, graph theory, expert knowledge, field experience, and information from the literature. Our results show that suitable habitat for R. roxellana hubeiensis in Shennongjia is fragmented and limited, and that this is particularly true for highly suitable habitats. We detected six core habitat patches and six least-cost paths and corridors. Our study does not provide accurate distributions of the monkeys and their habitat use. However, it identifies the most feasible and traversable habitats and corridors, which should be conservation priorities for this subspecies, and provides valuable guidance for reevaluating habitat conservation plans.     

川金丝猴粪尿中类固醇性激素抽提方法比较

本文旨在探讨川金丝猴粪尿中类固醇性激素的抽提方法, 实验比较了3 种尿液抽提溶剂和5 种粪便抽提方法的抽提回收率。结果显示, 以二氯甲烷为溶剂抽提雄猴尿液中的睾酮、雌猴尿液中的雌二醇和孕酮, 回收率分别为79.27%、73.39%和80.28%, 抽提效果较其它两种溶剂为好; 以乙醇加热法抽提雄猴粪便中的睾酮和雌二醇、雌猴粪便中的睾酮、雌二醇和孕酮, 回收率分别为1.33%、85.12%与67.41%、79.58%和77.71%, 抽提效果优于其它4 种方法,且该方法简便易于操作。实验表明, 以二氯甲烷和乙醇加热法分别抽提川金丝猴尿液和粪便中的类固醇性激素是较理想的抽提方法。     

The reproductive behavior of golden monkeys in captivity (Rhinopithecus roxellana roxellana)

The reproductive behavior of two captive harem breeding groups of golden monkeys was observed over one mating season and compared to non-seasonal reproductive behavior. Observation of over two thousand sexual interactions suggests that 1) females were responsible for 95% of all sexual solicitations (proceptive behavior), of which the typical pattern was prostration, while males were responsible for only 5%; 2) 17% of female solicitations were interrupted by another female; 3) 52% of female solicitations resulted in mounting by males; 4) the frequencies of solicitations and receipt of mounts and ejaculations varied greatly among females; 5) the frequency of ejaculations, the ratio of ejaculations to mountings, and ejaculation patterns were different between two males, and 6) the golden monkey is a seasonal breeding animal.     

Effect of Group Size on Time Budgets of Sichuan Snub-Nosed Monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana) in Shennongjia National Nature Reserve, China

Group size influences intragroup scramble competition, which in turn influences time budgets in some primates, and may impact age–sex classes differently. There is a great deal of debate about whether folivorous primates, e.g., colobines, experience significant feeding competition. Unlike most colobines, Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana) live in extraordinarily large groups and eat mainly lichens supplemented by seasonal plant food. We examined the effect of group size on time budgets in this species by studying two groups of different sizes in the same habitat in Shennongjia National Nature Reserve, China (study periods: August 2006–July 2008 for the larger group, November 2008–July 2009 for the smaller group). Results showed that the distribution of activities throughout the day did not differ between groups, but that time budgets did differ. Specifically, the monkeys spent more time moving and less time resting in the larger group than in the smaller group. Intergroup comparisons for each age–sex class indicated that adult females (but not adult males or juveniles) in the larger group spent more time moving and less time resting, and tended to spend more time feeding compared to those in the smaller group. The results suggested that increased scramble competition was occurring for adult females in the larger group. We provided preliminary evidence for the existence of intragroup scramble competition in Rhinopithecus roxellana.     

人工饲养川金丝猴流产死产原因初探

该文对陕西省珍稀野生动物抢救饲养研究中心的川金丝猴,在繁殖过程中流产死产的原因进行了初步探讨,认为在饲养条件下强烈的应激刺激、分娩时脐带缠绕成结或脱垂,迫使胎儿在娩出前即行肺呼吸吸入羊水窒息死亡,和年老带病的雌猴配种是造成流产死产的主要原因.基本上可以排除传染性疾病所致.     

人工饲养川金丝猴流产死产原因初探

该文对陕西省珍稀野生动物抢救饲养研究中心的川金丝猴,在繁殖过程中流产死产的原因进行了初步探讨,认为在饲养条件下强烈的应激刺激,分娩时脐带缠绕成结或脱垂,迫使胎儿在娩出前即行肺呼吸吸入羊水窒息死亡,和年老带病的雌猴配种是造成流产死产的主要原因,基本上可以排除传染性疾病所致。     

Male Infanticide in the Golden Snub-Nosed Monkey (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Rhinopithecus roxellana</Emphasis>), a Seasonally Breeding Primate

In nonhuman primates, infanticide by adult males can occur when the leader male is ousted from a one-male, multifemale group, or when male dominance rank changes within a multimale, multifemale group. According to the sexual selection hypothesis, this behavior may be adaptive if perpetrators increase their reproductive success by killing unrelated, unweaned infants, thus shortening the interbirth interval of the mother, and then siring her next infant. Under an alternative hypothesis, infanticide is a byproduct of aggressive male–male competition and these predictions do not hold. Direct observations of the context surrounding infanticide in free-ranging primate populations that allow a test of these predictions are rare. Here, we document four cases of male infanticide and report paternity data for a group of golden snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana) at Shennongjia, China. Three cases of infanticide by new leader males supported the predictions of the sexual selection hypothesis, while another provides partial support for the sexual selection hypothesis, but can also be explained via a nonadaptive hypothesis. In this latter case, a male from an all-male group killed an infant during an aggressive episode that appeared to be accidental, as it took place 7 mo before a male takeover happened, and the perpetrator did not obtain any reproductive advantage. We conclude that most male infanticide events in golden snub-nosed monkeys are consistent with the adaptive selection sexual hypothesis.     

Sexual interference in the Golden snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana): a test of the sexual competition hypothesis in a polygynous species

Sexual interference (SI), which is defined as any disturbance directed to a mating pair by other individuals, has been reported in several primate species. It is widely suggested that successful harassers experience improved mating success by increasing their access to reproductive partners as well as by reducing the mating success of rivals. Although theories of primate sexual conflict highlight male intra-sexual mating competition, females also are reported to actively disrupt copulations between mating partners. In this study, we investigated SI in a multilevel troop of Golden snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana) inhabiting the Qinling Mountains, China. Behavioral observations of 11 one-male units (OMU) that comprised the multilevel troop were conducted from September 2007 to May 2008. During this period 17.1% of 652 documented intra-OMU sexual encounters were characterized either by mild or aggressive forms of harassment. Sexual harassment was typically performed by a single individual (91.9%), and in 75.7% of cases the harasser was an adult or sub-adult female. The frequency of female harassment was positively correlated with the number of adult and sub-adult females residing in an OMU, and resulted in a significant decrease in matings ending in ejaculation. We found that the amount of SI a female received was not a significant predictor of her reproductive success. However, females who conceived during the mating season directed higher levels of harassment at other females than females who did not conceive. We evaluate the strength of the sexual competition hypothesis and the hormonally modulated aggression hypothesis in explaining patterns of SI in female Golden snub-nosed monkeys.     

Genetic diversity and population history of golden monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana)

Golden monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana), namely the snub-nosed monkey, is a well-known endangered primate, which distributes only in the central part of mainland China. As an effort to understand the current genetic status as well as population history of this species, we collected a sample of 32 individuals from four different regions, which cover the major habitat of this species. Forty-four allozyme loci were surveyed in our study by allozyme electrophoresis, none of which was found to be polymorphic. The void of polymorphism compared with that of other nonhuman primates is surprising particularly considering that the current population size is many times larger than that of some other endangered species. Since many independent loci are surveyed in this study, the most plausible explanation for our observation is that the population has experienced a recent bottleneck. We used a coalescent approach to explore various scenarios of population bottleneck and concluded that the most recent bottleneck could have happened within the last 15,000 years. Moreover, the proposed simulation approach could be useful to researchers who need to analyze the non- or low-polymorphism data.     

Sociosexual behavior of captive sichuan golden monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana)

The Sichuan golden snub-nosed monkey, Rhinopithecus roxellana, is an endangered Colobine endemic to China. The social and reproductive behavior of this species are little known, and it has rarely been kept in captivity outside China. Results from observations of a captive golden monkey pair revealed some unusual details of sociosexual behavior. Both members of the pair mounted one other, and female mounting of the male occurred nearly as often as the reverse. Male mounts were always preceded by a stereotyped behavioral sequence that included distinct facial and vocal displays. Female mounts occurred in response to male solicitation (presenting). No evidence of ejaculation was observed in association with mounts, although mounts were only observed in a distinctly sexual context. Sexual behavior was associated with aggressive displays by one or both animals and with apparently proceptive behavior by the female. All sexual behaviors showed a peak near the end of the study, although the female was continually receptive throughout the 2-month study period.     

Seasonality of matings and births in captive Sichuan golden monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana)

This study, based on three years of mating behavior observations and 10 years of birth records, reveals that Sichuan golden monkeys in captivity displayed a marked seasonality of mating behavior and births. The peak of matings occurred around October, and births occurred in March-June. The birth peak followed the mating peak by six to seven months. This seasonal cycle of matings and births was similar to observations made in the wild, where both temperature and food resources were favorable in spring. The time delay between peaks of matings and births was the approximate length of gestation, which implies that mating behavior was concentrated during the period of conception. We suggest that the peak of births in captive Sichuan golden monkeys occurred during the time of year with the most favorable environmental conditions, and the peak of matings corresponded with the period of conception.