Determination of the primary sequence of the duck αD globin mRNA and comparison of all adult duck and chick globin mRNA sequences

The nucleotide sequence of the duck α^D globin mRNA was determined. Its main feature is an exceptionally short 3′ non-coding segment of only 46 nucleotides, placed after the coding sequence of 141 codons. The last of the 6 adult globin mRNA of duck and chicken being thus sequenced, a comparison of all their features has become possible. Comparing the duck α^D mRNA to the related sequence in the chicken, we found greater homology than comparing it to the linked α^A globin sequence in the same species. Extensive homology can be found for a same globin chain α^A, α^D or β in between different avian species including also the goose and the ostrich; the avian α globin chains show a lower degree of sequence conservation in between species than the β chains. In contrast, within one species the three globin sequences have further diverged. The divergence between the α^A and α^D globin within a same species point to individual functional specificity and hence independent evolution and suggest that a mechanism of ‘gene conversion’ did not operate in between the avian α globin genes. Two segments of the amino acid sequence which we named ‘A^α’ and ‘B^α’ remain homologous in all avian α globins; two other regions ‘A^β’ and ‘B^β’ are identical in between the β globins. Segment A is placed at the 5′ end of exon II, and segment B at the 3′ end of the same exon; some amino acids in those segments are involved in the Heme binding site. Being almost identical in all know mammalian and avian globins of the α respectively the β type, regions A and B seem to represent the best conserved sequences in adult globin mRNA maintained during the divergence of species.     

Temporal processes and duck populations: examples from Mývatn

Studies of temporal processes at Lake Mývatn, Iceland, on three scales, millennial, centennial and decadal, are reviewed and a summary is presented of the main results of waterfowl population monitoring studies conducted during the past three decades. The characteristics of shallow, subarctic Lake Mývatn and its volcanic environment, are outlined, as well as recent conflicts between development and conservation. Mining of the bottom sediment of Lake Mývatn has been a major agent causing habitat destruction and damage to the food web. Population limitation of waterbirds at Mývatn is discussed, as three research questions and emerging answers: (1) How is reproductive output determined? All species studied showed positive correlations of production of young with levels of aquatic insects, catastrophic weather was rarely important; (2) How is the dispersion of breeding ducks determined? Densities of migratory species are determined mainly by resource levels on the breeding ground in the year before they return to the breeding area; a year-round resident species, Bucephala islandica, adjusts its density to the current availability of insect food in each of two main habitats used; (3) How are flyway populations of ducks determined? For most species, there is not enough information on total numbers and the state of the habitat on a flyway scale. In B. islandica, there are indications that the total population is limited by resources in winter. The Mývatn study area is dominated by a single, shallow and eutrophic lake and for many waterbird species the area seems to form a single functional unit. This leads to significant correlations when comparing demography with environmental conditions, such as food resources.     

Molecular cloning,expression and characterization of Pekin duck interferon-λ

Interferons (IFNs) are the first line of defense against viral infections in vertebrates. Type III interferon (IFN-λ) is recognized for its key role in innate immunity of tissues of epithelial origin. Here we describe the identification of the Pekin duck IFN-λ ortholog (duIFN-λ). The predicted duIFN-λ protein has an amino acid identity of 63%, 38%, 37% and 33% with chicken IFN-λ and human IFN-λ3, IFN-λ2 and IFN-λ1, respectively. The duck genome contains a single IFN-λ gene that is comprised of five exons and four introns. Recombinant duIFN-λ up-regulated OASL and Mx-1 mRNA in primary duck hepatocytes. Our observations suggest evolutionary conservation of genomic organization and structural features implicated in receptor binding and antiviral activity. The identification and expression of duIFN-λ will facilitate further study of the role of type III IFN in antiviral defense and inflammatory responses of the Pekin duck, a non-mammalian vertebrate and pathogen host with relevance for human and animal health.     

Alien eggs in duck nests: brood parasitism or a help from Grandma?

Intraspecific brood parasitism (IBP) is a remarkable phenomenon by which parasitic females can increase their reproductive output by laying eggs in conspecific females' nests in addition to incubating eggs in their own nest. Kin selection could explain the tolerance, or even the selective advantage, of IBP, but different models of IBP based on game theory yield contradicting predictions. Our analyses of seven polymorphic autosomal microsatellites in two eider duck colonies indicate that relatedness between host and parasitizing females is significantly higher than the background relatedness within the colony. This result is unlikely to be a by-product of relatives nesting in close vicinity, as nest distance and genetic identity are not correlated. For eider females that had been ring-marked during the decades prior to our study, our analyses indicate that (i) the average age of parasitized females is higher than the age of nonparasitized females, (ii) the percentage of nests with alien eggs increases with the age of nesting females, (iii) the level of IBP increases with the host females' age, and (iv) the number of own eggs in the nest of parasitized females significantly decreases with age. IBP may allow those older females unable to produce as many eggs as they can incubate to gain indirect fitness without impairing their direct fitness: genetically related females specialize in their energy allocation, with young females producing more eggs than they can incubate and entrusting these to their older relatives. Intraspecific brood parasitism in ducks may constitute cooperation among generations of closely related females.     

The ruddy duck Oxyura jamaicensis in Europe: natural colonization or human introduction?

Native to North America, ruddy ducks Oxyura jamaicensis now occur in 21 countries in the western Palaearctic (including Iceland) and their expanding population threatens the native white-headed duck, Oxyura leucocephala, through hybridization and possibly competition for food and nest sites. We used mitochondrial DNA sequences and nuclear microsatellites to test whether the European ruddy duck population is descended solely from the captive population in the UK, which traces to seven individuals imported from the USA in 1948, or, alternatively, has been augmented by natural dispersal of birds from North America. Limited genetic diversity in the European population is consistent with a founder population as small as seven birds. In addition, shifts in allele frequencies at several loci, presumably due to genetic drift in the founding population, result in significant differentiation between the European and North American populations. Despite the recent separation of these populations, almost all individuals could be unambiguously assigned based on their composite genotypes, to one of two distinct populations, one comprising all of the European ruddy ducks we sampled (including those from Iceland and captive birds in the UK) and the other comprising all North American samples. Our results confirm that the European ruddy duck population is likely to derive solely from the captive population in the UK and we find no evidence of recent arrivals from North America or of admixture between ruddy ducks from Europe and North America.     

Fish–duck interactions in boreal lakes in Finland as reflected by abundance correlations

We studied the hypothesis that fish play an important role in lake use by ducks (pairs and broods) in boreal lakes. The study was based on densities of different duck and fish species in 28 boreal lakes in southern Finland. We focused on the three most common duck species (mallard Anas platyrhynchos, green-winged teal A. crecca and common goldeneye Bucephala clangula) and on the three most common fish species (perch Perca fluviatilis, roach Rutilus rutilus and pike Esox lucius) in the region. We considered both competitive and predatory interactions between ducks and fish, the perch and roach being potential competitors with ducks and the pike a potential predator of ducks. We found a negative association between green-winged teal brood density and total fish density, the other duck species having only a weak association with total fish density. When the three fish species were considered separately, a negative association, suggesting food competition, was found between perch, green-winged teal and goldeneye, whereas the role of roach as a food competitor seemed to be of minor importance. We did not find any clear signs of predatory effects of pike on ducks. Our results suggest that food competition is a more important factor than pike predation in affecting lake use by ducks in oligotrophic boreal environments in southern Finland.     

Spatiotemporal dynamics of duck harvest distributions in the Central and Mississippi flyways, 1960–2019

Geographical distributions of waterfowl exhibit annual variation in response to spatiotemporal variation in weather conditions, habitat availability, and other factors. Continuing changes in climate and land use could lead to persistent shifts of waterfowl distributions, potentially causing a mismatch with habitat conservation planning, wetland restoration efforts, and harvest management decisions informed by historical distributions. We used band recoveries and harvest records (i.e., hunter-harvested wings) from the United States Fish and Wildlife Service Waterfowl Parts Collection Survey as indices of duck distribution in autumn and winter, and quantified intra-annual, interannual, and interspecific variation in their geographic distributions across 6 decades (1960–2019) for 15 duck species in the Central and Mississippi flyways in North America. Specifically, we tested for annual and decadal shifts in mean latitude and longitude of recoveries for each month (Oct–Jan) by species and taxonomic guild (i.e., dabbling, diving ducks). Overall, species varied in the extent, timing, and sometimes direction, of distributional change in recoveries. From 1960–2019, mean recovery locations for dabbling ducks shifted south 105–296 km in October and 27 km in November (wings only), whereas mean latitudes shifted north 144–234 km in December and 186–301 km in January. Mean recovery locations for diving ducks shifted north 162 km in October (wings only), 84–173 km in December, and 66–120 km in January, but shifted 99–512 km south in November. Shifts in longitude were less consistent between guilds and data types. Finally, distributional change rarely accelerated during recent decades, except for southward shifts of band recoveries of diving ducks in November and northward shifts of band and wing recoveries of dabbling ducks in January. Although anecdotal accounts of large-scale northward shifts in duck distributions are prolific in the land management and hunting communities, our data demonstrate more subtle shifts that vary considerably by species and month. Observed changes in recovery distributions could necessitate changes in timing of habitat management practices throughout the Central and Mississippi flyways and may result in fewer hunting and recreational opportunities for some species in southern states. Quantifying patterns of historical change is a necessary first step to understanding temporal and interspecific variation in waterfowl distributions, which will help with landscape-scale conservation and management efforts in the future and enable effective communication to core constituencies regarding ongoing changes and their implications for recreational engagement.     

Abbreviated 3′ non-coding region in duck alpha D globin messenger RNA defines evolutionarily conserved sequences

Nucleotide sequence data for the duck alpha D globin gene indicate an extremely short 3′ untranslated region of only 49 nucleotides. Evolutionarily conserved sequences defined short regions of potential functional significance. Comparisons among sequences for duck and chicken alpha globins indicate that this region has importance in the regulation of globin gene expression.     

A re-evaluation of the molecular size of duck ε-crystallin and its comparison with avian lactate dehydrogenases

A biochemical comparison of ε-crystallin isolated from the duck lens and lactate dehydrogenase of chicken heart has been made in order to establish the structural and functional identities of these two proteins. The native molecular weight of ε-crystallin was re-examined by combining sedimentation and gel-filtration data. It was found that ε-crystallin is 150 kDa in contrast to the 120 kDa reported previously for this crystallin. Subunit cross-linking experiments corroborated that lactate dehydrogenase and ε-crystallin both exist as tetramers of four identical subunits in their native quaternary structures. Amino acid compositions plus N-terminal analyses revealed no differences between the two proteins. Duck ε-crystallin exhibited high enzymatic activity of lactate dehydrogenases even after a long period of storage, and showed characteristic thermostability at 50°C for several hours. Comparison of the enzyme activity of duck lens homogenate with those of heart, liver and muscle tissues revealed that duck lens is a much richer source than other tissues for the isolation and characterization of this important enzyme which appears also as a structural protein in the lens.     

Phenotypic flexibility of a southern African duck Alopochen aegyptiaca during moult: do northern hemisphere paradigms apply?

Phenotypic flexibility during moult has never been explored in austral nomadic ducks. We investigated whether the body condition, organ (pectoral muscle, gizzard, liver and heart) mass and flight‐feather growth Egyptian geese Alopochen aegyptiaca in southern Africa show phenotypic flexibility over their 53‐day period of flightless moult. Changes in body mass and condition were examined in Egyptian geese caught at Barberspan and Strandfontein in South Africa. Mean daily change in primary feather length was calculated for moulting geese and birds were dissected for pectoral muscle and internal organ assessment. Mean body mass and condition varied significantly during moult. Body mass and condition started to decrease soon after flight feathers were dropped and continued to do so until the new feathers were at least two‐thirds grown, after which birds started to regain body mass and condition. Non‐moulting geese had large pectoral muscles, accounting for at least 26% of total body mass. Once moult started, pectoral muscle mass decreased and continued to do so until the flight feathers were at least one‐third grown, after which pectoral muscle mass started to increase. The regeneration of pectoral muscles during moult started before birds started to gain overall body mass. Gizzard mass started to increase soon after the onset of moult, reaching a maximum when the flight feathers were two‐thirds grown, after which gizzard mass again decreased. Liver mass increased significantly as moult progressed, but heart mass remained constant throughout moult. Flight feather growth was initially rapid, but slowed towards the completion of moult. Our results show that Egyptian geese exhibit a significant level of phenotypic flexibility when they moult. We interpret the phenotypic changes that we observed as an adaptive strategy to minimize the duration of the flightless period. Moulting Egyptian geese in South Africa undergo more substantial phenotypic changes than those reported for ducks in the northern hemisphere.     

Enhanced C-type lysozyme content of wood duck (Aix sponsa) egg white: an adaptation to cavity nesting?

Abstract Wild waterfowl species often nest in conditions where high humidity and microbial contamination may influence egg survival and quality. Albumen is traditionally regarded as the major impediment to microbial contamination of eggs, and its composition and activity may be selected by environmental pressures. Egg white protein from the eggs of wood duck (Aix sponsa), hooded merganser (Lophodytes cucullatus), Canada goose (Branta canadensis), and mute swan (Cygnus olor) was evaluated in order to compare the antimicrobial defenses of these species. Ovotransferrin and ovalbumin were identified in all species, but c-type lysozyme was present only in wood duck and hooded merganser egg white samples. Wood duck egg white showed the greatest bacterial activity as well as the highest lysozyme content. Egg white from wood duck and hooded merganser possessed greater lysozyme activity under acidic conditions, suggesting a c-type lysozyme with a pH optimum lower than that of Gallus gallus c-type lysozyme or the presence of g-type lysozyme. Ovotransferrin bacteriostatic activity appeared to be similar across the species investigated. The results suggest that lysozyme and ovotransferrin play a role in the antimicrobial defense of the avian egg. High levels of the broad-acting c-type lysozyme appear to have evolved in the albumen of the wood duck in order to ensure proper development of the embryo in the humid conditions of the cavity nest.     

Changes in age and sex ratios amongst samples of hunter-shot wings from common duck species in Denmark 1982–2010

There are almost no long-term demographic monitoring programmes of commoner waterbird species, yet such data are fundamental to our understanding of drivers of population change. In the present study, we present annual age and sex ratios in samples of shot duck wings forwarded on a voluntary basis by hunters throughout Denmark from 1982 to 2010 for eight common quarry species. Wigeon, Shoveler, Pintail and Goldeneye showed statistically significant declines in the proportions of young birds in the samples, but only Wigeon showed a statistically significant decline in the proportion of females in the adult sample over this period. Amongst Wigeon, the proportions of first winter birds and females were lower amongst the sample shot over decoys compared with those shot without decoys, suggesting these two shooting methods differentially select for young birds and females. However, the slopes of declines in these proportions shot with and without decoys over time did not differ. We found no correlations between North Atlantic Oscillation index values and the proportions of young for any of the species or between May and June temperatures on the breeding areas of Wigeon and the proportions of young in samples derived the following winter. With the exception of Wigeon, little is known about how well the shot duck wing samples reflect the true ratios in the populations, and unravelling the error and bias associated with these samples remains a high future research priority. If long-term declines in age and sex ratio in the wing surveys reflect true trends in the Wigeon population as a whole, we have strong grounds for concern for this population, and effort should be invested in increased demographic surveillance to better understand the causes of these changes. We need improved methods to derive unbiased measures of annual breeding of our common duck species if we are to be better able to understand the population dynamics of these stocks and be effective in their management. In the meantime, the Danish wing survey represents a unique time series of reproductive success for many common migratory duck species and must be maintained and further exploited.     

Do alien predators pose a particular risk to duck nests in Northern Europe? Results from an artificial nest experiment

Several alien predator species have spread widely in Europe during the last five decades and pose a potential enhanced risk to native nesting ducks and their eggs. Because predation is an important factor limiting Northern Hemisphere duck nest survival, we ask the question, do alien species increase the nest loss risk to ground nesting ducks? We created 418 artificial duck nests in low densities around inland waters in Finland and Denmark during 2017–2019 and monitored them for seven days after construction using wildlife cameras to record whether alien species visit and prey on the nests more often than native species. We sampled various duck breeding habitats from eutrophic agricultural lakes and wetlands to oligotrophic lakes and urban environments. The results differed between habitats and the two countries, which likely reflect the local population densities of the predator species. The raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides), an alien species, was the most common mammalian nest visitor in all habitats and its occurrence reduced nest survival. Only in wetland habitats was the native red fox (Vulpes vulpes) an equally common nest visitor, where another alien species, the American mink (Neovison vison), also occurred among nest visitors. Although cautious about concluding too much from visitations to artificial nests, these results imply that duck breeding habitats in Northern Europe already support abundant and effective alien nest predators, whose relative frequency of visitation to artificial nests suggest that they potentially add to the nest predation risk to ducks over native predators.

     

Excitatory and inhibitory responses caused by norepinephrine in duck subfornical organ neurons are mediated by β- and α 2-adrenoceptor activation

The responsiveness of spontaneously active neurons in the subfornical organ (SFO) of adult ducks to angiotensin II (ANGII), norepinephrine (NE), isoproterenol (Iso, -agonist), phenylephrine (Phe, ₁-agonist) and clonidine (Clo, ₂-agonist) was investigated in brain slices with extracellular recording technique. 64% (n=90) of the neurons increased their activity after superfusion with ANGII, the rest were unresponsive. Application of NE activated 10 and inhibited 8 neurons (n=22); the excitation being correlated with an excitatory ANGII responsiveness of the same neurons and the inhibition with the absence of an ANGII responsiveness. Iso activated 74% (n=58) and Clo inhibited 88% (n=16) of the investigated neurons. Phe did not have an effect on the majority (60%) of the neurons and produced both excitatory and inhibitory actions on the remaining cells. These results offer a plausible explanation for the dose dependent dipsogenic effect of Iso and the failure of NE to elicit dose dependent drinking, which can be explained by its dual, excitatory and inhibitory effect on SFO neurons. It is further concluded, that peripherally applied Iso exerts its dipsogenic action in high concentration by a direct excitatory effect on SFO neurons via the open blood brain barrier. Under physiological conditions, afferent neuronal input of still unknown origin might specifically modulate the activity of SFO neurons, because plasma concentrations of NE are probably not high enough to activate SFO neurons from the blood side of the blood brain barrier.Abbreviations ACSF artificial cerebrospinal fluid - ANGII angiotensin II - Clo clonidine - Iso isoproterenol - NE norepinephrine - NTS nucleus of the solitary tract - Phe phenylephrine - SFO subfornical organ     

H5N1亚型禽流感病毒A/duck/Shandong/093/2004株的全基因克隆及序列分析

应用流感病毒通用引物［4］和H5N1亚型禽流感（Avian influenza virus, AIV）的型特异性引物,成功的扩增出H5N1亚型禽流感病毒A/duck/Shandong/093/2004株（简称A/D/SD/04）的全基因序列（包括5′和3′端的非编码区序列）。A/D/SD/04的基因组核苷酸全序列与18株网上公布的禽流感基因序列进行比较和分析,结果与4株鸭源H5N1的5～7个基因具99%以上的同源性;与14株H5N1有至少一个以上内部基因同源性在95%以上。与H9亚型AIV代表株A/Quail/Hongkong/G1/97（简称G1株）和A/Chicken/Beijing/1/94（简称BJ94）比较,除了非结构基因（Nonstructural gene, NS）与G1株的同源性为95.3%外,其余基因均在36.6%～92.1%之间。说明A/D/SD/04没有H9N2基因的直接整合,是H5N1毒株在自然界的重组株。推导的HA氨基酸序列分析,A/D/SD/04 的血凝素（Heamgglutinin,HA）裂解位点与比较的16株AIV的序列一致,是高致病性禽流感的分子特征（PQRERRRKKR/G）,第226位氨基酸是对禽类和哺乳细胞均具有亲嗜性的蛋氨酸（Met）。神经氨酸酶（Neuraminidase, NA）在第48位氨基酸（颈部）后有20个氨基酸的缺失,但非结构蛋白（NS）没有在79～84氨基酸发生缺失。碱性聚合酶2（PB2）的627位氨基酸是亲禽类细胞的谷氨酸（Glu, E）。结合生物学特性和分子特征,A/D/SD/04对小鼠的致病力是由多种因素决定,其可能是一株对鸡高度致病,并逐渐获得对哺乳动物致病能力的中间重组病毒。     

家鸭中H8N4亚型流感病毒株A/duck/Yangzhou/02/2005的全基因克隆和序列分析

采用常规的血清学试验和特异性RT-PCR方法对华东地区家养水禽中流感病毒的带毒状况进行4年多的监测,分离鉴定出国内报道的第一株H8亚型禽流感病毒。应用流感病毒通用引物成功地扩增出H8N4亚型禽流感病毒A/duck/Yangzhou/02/2005株(简称Dk/YZ/02/05)的全基因序列。将Dk/YZ/02/05的基因组核苷酸全序列与网上公布的基因序列进行比较分析,结果表明:Dk/YZ/02/05(H8N4)的8个基因片段均含有相应病毒基因的完整开放阅读框;其推导的血凝素(Heamgglutinin,HA)氨基酸剪切位点序列为P-S-V-E-P-R,为典型低致病性禽流感病毒的特征序列;神经氨酸酶(NA)在第48位氨基酸后无20个氨基酸的缺失;非结构蛋白(NS)79~84位也没有氨基酸的缺失。     

Lipid pattern and Na+−K+-dependent adenosine triphosphatase activity in the salt gland of duck before and after adaptation to hypertonic saline

Summary Ducks (Anas platyrhynchos) were fed hypertonic saline for eight days, resulting in an activation and hypertrophy of the salt gland. The Na⁺–K⁺-dependent adenosine triphosphatase, an enzyme generally assumed to be part of the active Na transport system, increased its specific activity by about 200% during this activation. Sulfatides, the major glycolipids of the salt gland, increased their concentration to the same extent. Cholesterol, cerebrosides, and six phospholipid classes showed an increase of 20–80%.A preliminary report on this work was given at the Second International Meeting of the International Society for Neurochemistry, Milan, September 1–5, 1969, and at the XIIIth International Conference on the Biochemistry of Lipids, Athens, September 7–12, 1969.