Female genital cutting: a harmless practice?

A recent article in Medical Anthropology Quarterly (Obermeyer 1999) argues that the "facts" about the "harmful effects" of female genital cutting (FGC) are "not sufficiently supported by the evidence" (p. 79). The article suggests three further hypotheses, among others: (1) FGC may be of minimal harm because the more educated continue the practice just as much as the less educated; (2) FGC may be of minimal harm because it is so widespread and persistent; (3) FGC may be of minimal harm because the supposed link between the clitoris and female sexual pleasure is a social construction rather than a physiological reality. I challenge these hypotheses. I say that by appropriate standards of evaluation, FGC is harmful. Finally, I submit that most FGC is a proper matter of concern because it is the irreversible reduction of a human capacity in the absence of meaningful consent.     

Is there a link between paternity concern and female genital cutting in West Africa?

Here we explore the relationship between female genital cutting (FGC), sexual behaviour, and marriage opportunities in five West African countries. Using large demographic datasets (n 72,438 women, 12,704 men, 10,695 couples) we explore key (but untested) assumptions of an evolutionary proposal that FGC persists because it provides evolutionary fitness benefits for men by reducing non-paternity rates. We identify and test three assumptions implicit in this proposal. We test whether cut women have reduced extra-pair sex before or within marriage; whether FGC is associated with a younger age at marriage as an indication of partner preference; and whether individual and group-level indicators of paternity concern are associated with a stronger preference for marriage to women with FGC.Our results show that FGC status does not affect the odds of women engaging in several indicators of premarital sex, however women with FGC have significantly lower odds of having more than one lifetime sexual partner. We also show that women with FGC get married at a younger age which supports the argument that FGC status influences women's marriage opportunities, even when it does not restrict sexual activity. Finally, we find that in population groups where reported sexual activity and perceived risk of women's extra-pair sex is high, men have higher odds of marrying a first wife with FGC. Together, these results indicate that paternity certainty may be one of several factors contributing to the persistence of FGC in this sample, and that group-level sexual norms are key to maintaining the practice of FGC through the marriage market.     

Female genital cutting and reproductive experience in Minya, Egypt

In African populations practicing female genital cutting (FGC), beliefs exist that these procedures enhance reproduction and that their medicalization may diminish adverse effects, yet available findings are mixed in part for methodological reasons. We use data from a representative sample of ever-married women aged 17-55 years in Minya, Egypt, to examine the effects of type of FGC and type of circumciser on a woman's risks of primary infertility and pregnancy loss. Contrary to previous studies in Egypt, neither type of circumcision nor type of circumciser is associated with adverse fertility outcomes among circumcised women in Minya.     

A male pseudohermaphrodite white-tailed deer resembling an antlered doe.

A male pseudohermaphrodite white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) is described. The animal shot in Aiken County, South Carolina on November 4, 1971, was 1.5 years old and had the external appearance of an antlered doe. The 6 point antlers were in velvet, a vulva was present, and the testes were located in the body cavity. Other male reproductive organs present were epididymides, vasa deferentia and ampullae. Female reproductive organs present were cervix, vagina and clitoris.     

Reconciling female genital circumcision with universal human rights

One of the most challenging issues in cross‐cultural bioethics concerns the long‐standing socio‐cultural practice of female genital circumcision (FGC), which is prevalent in many African countries and the Middle East as well as in some Asian and Western countries. It is commonly assumed that FGC, in all its versions, constitutes a gross violation of the universal human rights of health, physical integrity, and individual autonomy and hence should be abolished. This article, however, suggests a mediating approach according to which one form of FGC, the removal of the clitoris foreskin, can be made compatible with the high demands of universal human rights. The argument presupposes the idea that human rights are not absolutist by nature but can be framed in a meaningful, culturally sensitive way. It proposes important limiting conditions that must be met for the practice of FGC to be considered in accordance with the human rights agenda.     

Female sexual arousal: genital anatomy and orgasm in intercourse

In men and women sexual arousal culminates in orgasm, with female orgasm solely from sexual intercourse often regarded as a unique feature of human sexuality. However, orgasm from sexual intercourse occurs more reliably in men than in women, likely reflecting the different types of physical stimulation men and women require for orgasm. In men, orgasms are under strong selective pressure as orgasms are coupled with ejaculation and thus contribute to male reproductive success. By contrast, women's orgasms in intercourse are highly variable and are under little selective pressure as they are not a reproductive necessity. The proximal mechanisms producing variability in women's orgasms are little understood. In 1924 Marie Bonaparte proposed that a shorter distance between a woman's clitoris and her urethral meatus (CUMD) increased her likelihood of experiencing orgasm in intercourse. She based this on her published data that were never statistically analyzed. In 1940 Landis and colleagues published similar data suggesting the same relationship, but these data too were never fully analyzed. We analyzed raw data from these two studies and found that both demonstrate a strong inverse relationship between CUMD and orgasm during intercourse. Unresolved is whether this increased likelihood of orgasm with shorter CUMD reflects increased penile–clitoral contact during sexual intercourse or increased penile stimulation of internal aspects of the clitoris. CUMD likely reflects prenatal androgen exposure, with higher androgen levels producing larger distances. Thus these results suggest that women exposed to lower levels of prenatal androgens are more likely to experience orgasm during sexual intercourse.     

From Health to Human Rights: Female Genital Cutting and the Politics of Intervention

ABSTRACT  The international campaign to eliminate female genital cutting (FGC) has, since the early 1990s, actively attempted to divorce itself from a health framework, adopting instead a human rights framework to justify intervention. Several key questions emerge regarding the prominent placement of FGC in the international human rights movement: What are the ramifications of framing FGC as a human rights violation? What actions are mandated by a human rights approach? What perils and pitfalls potentially arise from the adoption of a rights-based framework, and how might they be avoided? In exploring these questions it becomes clear that, although a human rights approach is promising, careful deliberation is required to develop action strategies that offer both protection and respect for the culture and autonomy of those women and families concerned.     

A short history of MADS-box genes in plants

Evolutionary developmental genetics (evodevotics) is a novel scientific endeavor which assumes that changes in developmental control genes are a major aspect of evolutionary changes in morphology. Understanding the phylogeny of developmental control genes may thus help us to understand the evolution of plant and animal form. The principles of evodevotics are exemplified by outlining the role of MADS-box genes in the evolution of plant reproductive structures. In extant eudicotyledonous flowering plants, MADS-box genes act as homeotic selector genes determining floral organ identity and as floral meristem identity genes. By reviewing current knowledge about MADS-box genes in ferns, gymnosperms and different types of angiosperms, we demonstrate that the phylogeny of MADS-box genes was strongly correlated with the origin and evolution of plant reproductive structures such as ovules and flowers. It seems likely, therefore, that changes in MADS-box gene structure, expression and function have been a major cause for innovations in reproductive development during land plant evolution, such as seed, flower and fruit formation.     

Cognition, mood disorders, and sex hormones

Macaques (Macaca spp.) are useful models to evaluate effects of ovarian sex steroids and selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) on mood and cognitive function due to similarities to women in their reproductive and central nervous systems. The results of nonhuman primate studies support the hypothesis that estrogen mediates specific aspects of attention and memory, yet much work is needed to understand which cognitive processes are affected, whether natural versus surgical menopause effects are different, and the interaction of age and ovarian senescence on cognitive function. This knowledge is necessary to determine whether to support the cognitive function of women in the menopausal phase of life and, if so, to determine efficacious therapeutic interventions. Mood disorders are prevalent in women and are associated with reproductive function in women and macaques. Exogenous steroid therapies, including oral contraceptives and postmenopausal hormone replacement therapies, have behavioral effects in women and appear to affect the behavior and underlying neural substrates of monkeys. Additional research is necessary to confirm and extend these observations. Ovarian steroids have multiple effects on serotonin synthesis, reuptake, and degradation, on neural activity that drives serotonin release, and on receptor activation in primates. This system modulates cognitive function and mood and is the target of a broad class of antidepressant therapies. Understanding the effects of ovarian steroids on the neural serotonergic system is necessary to understand depression in women. These studies are best carried out in primate models, which are more similar to humans in neural serotonergic function than other animal models.     

Identification of neural circuits involved in female genital responses in the rat: a dual virus and anterograde tracing study

The spinal and peripheral innervation of the clitoris and vagina are fairly well understood. However, little is known regarding supraspinal control of these pelvic structures. The multisynaptic tracer pseudorabies virus (PRV) was used to map the brain neurons that innervate the clitoris and vagina. To delineate forebrain input on PRV-labeled cells, the anterograde tracer biotinylated dextran amine was injected in the medial preoptic area (MPO), ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus (VMN), or the midbrain periaqueductal gray (PAG) 10 days before viral injections. These brain regions have been intimately linked to various aspects of female reproductive behavior. After viral injections (4 days) in the vagina and clitoris, PRV-labeled cells were observed in the paraventricular nucleus (PVN), Barrington's nucleus, the A5 region, and the nucleus paragigantocellularis (nPGi). At 5 days postviral administration, additional PRV-labeled cells were observed within the preoptic region, VMN, PAG, and lateral hypothalamus. Anterograde labeling from the MPO terminated among PRV-positive cells primarily within the dorsal PVN of the hypothalamus, ventrolateral VMN (VMNvl), caudal PAG, and nPGi. Anterograde labeling from the VMN terminated among PRV-positive cells in the MPO and lateral/ventrolateral PAG. Anterograde labeling from the PAG terminated among PRV-positive cells in the PVN, ventral hypothalamus, and nPGi. Transynaptically labeled cells in the lateral hypothalamus, Barrington's nucleus, and ventromedial medulla received innervation from all three sources. These studies, together, identify several central nervous system (CNS) sites participating in the neural control of female sexual responses. They also provide the first data demonstrating a link between the MPO, VMNvl, and PAG and CNS regions innervating the clitoris and vagina, providing support that these areas play a major role in female genital responses.     

A case of freemartin with atresia recti and ani in Japanese Black calf

A female Japanese Black calf was born on 25 March 2003 at Hiroshima University Farm as a co-twin to a male Japanese Black calf. The male calf showed no external urogenital abnormalities. The absence of anal opening and external features of freemartinism were observed in the female. A small opening to the vulva (about 1.5 cm in length) with fused lips and a prominent clitoris were seen. The hair around the vulva was 3.5 cm in length and was heavy and dense. The distance from the vulva to the atretic anus was 9.0 cm. There were no other detectable abnormalities on physical examination. The PCR-based DNA test showed male-specific sequences confirming the calf to be freemartin. At autopsy 1 day after the calf birth, the gonads were found to be small and hard and the left uterine horn showed segmental aplasia near its proximal end. Two seminal glands (remnants of mesonephric duct) were located on both sides of the uterine body. A cervix was absent. The vagina was underdeveloped and looked like a tubual structure. The rectal end was closed, while the distance from the end of the atretic rectum to the absent anal opening was about 4.0 cm. On histological examination, the gonads exhibited extensive morphologic alteration; there was no cortex with the absence of ovarian structures. The seminal glands consisted of hypoplastic glandular tissue surrounded by extensive fibrous connective tissue. In conclusion, this is a case report of a freemartin with atresia recti and ani.     

Female gonad of moles, genus Talpa (Insectivora, mammalia): ovary or ovotestis?

The female gonads of moles (genus Talpa) are composed of a cortex, functioning as an ovary, and a medulla, which is structurally similar to that of the testis. In the female reproductive apparatus there are masculine glandular annexes, such as a bilobate prostate, two Cowper glands, and a penis-like clitoris. All these features have recently led to the hypothesis of the presence of hermaphroditism due to sex-reversal in Talpa. The purpose of this study is to understand the functional significance of the structural organization of the female gonads in order to verify this hypothesis. Histological, histochemical and ultrastructural analyses have been carried out on several gonads of both sexes of two species: T. europaea and T. romana, including three fetuses. In both species, the cortical region of the female gonad shows a regular oogenetic activity. While the medulla is composed of interstitial cells that are partly organized in cord-like structures, no spermatogenetic activity has been ever observed inside of them. A histochemical analysis shows that in both sexes the interstitial cells secrete steroids, presumably estrogens as well as androgens. The presence of androgens in the female gonads would therefore explain the persistence of male glandular annexes in the female reproductive apparatus and both the sexual and behavioral monomorphism typical of the genus Talpa. Nonetheless, the female gonad of moles is a real ovary and a well-defined gonochorism exists. Therefore, there is no reason to assert the presence of hermaphroditism due to sex reversal.     

雌激素在中枢神经系统中的作用

雌激素对中枢神经系统神经元有多种作用（包括电生理、神经营养和代谢等的作用）。近年来,随着对雌激素作用基因组机制和非基因组机制的研究,人们逐渐加深了其在神经功能方面作用 的认识。目前发现,雌激素在调节下丘脑ＧnRH神经元功能活动、诱导和维持海马树状棘突,以及保护神经元等诸多方面都发挥着重要作用。流行病学提示,雌激素可以预防绝经妇女患早老性痴呆病（Alzheimer‘sDisease,AD)对神经功能有保护作用,由此可见,雌激素除调节生殖功能活动外,对中枢神经系统还有着更为广泛的作用。     

Squamous cell carcinoma with metastasis in a cynomolgus monkey (Macaca fascicularis)

A squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva with metastases to the inguinal lymph nodes and lung occurred in a female cynomolgus monkey (Maccaca fascicularis). The primary tumor was a pedunculated mass at the mucocutaneous junction of the left labium anterior to the clitoris.     

Company-sponsored egg freezing: an offer you can't refuse?

The aim of this article is to argue that one of the central arguments against company-sponsored non-medical egg freezing, namely that this practice is contrary to the reproductive autonomy of women, can be difficult to sustain under certain conditions. More specifically, we argue that company-sponsored egg freezing is not necessarily in conflict with the most common requirements for autonomous choice. That is, there is no reason to assume that employees cannot be adequately informed beforehand about what is scientifically known about the practice, and/or that they lack the required capacity to understand and process this information. Although they may feel a certain pressure to comply with the wishes of their employer, this concern can plausibly be alleviated through privacy regulations. In any event, such pressure is arguably not stronger than or relevantly different from other types of pressure on the labour market that most people readily accept as being ethically acceptable. Finally, we argue that company-sponsored non-medical egg freezing may mitigate certain types of oppressive socialization, although it may well perpetuate others, and should in any case arguably be dealt with through guidelines and counselling, which would ensure that women make autonomous choices when companies offer egg freezing.     

Neural correlates of sexual arousal in heterosexual and homosexual women and men

Most men have a category-specific pattern of genital and subjective sexual arousal, responding much more strongly to erotic stimuli depicting their preferred sex than to erotic stimuli depicting their nonpreferred sex. In contrast, women tend to have a less specific arousal pattern. To better understand this sex difference, we used neuroimaging to explore its neural correlates. Heterosexual and homosexual women viewed erotic photographs of either men or women. Evoked neural activity was monitored via fMRI and compared with responses to the same stimuli in heterosexual and homosexual men. Overall, a network of limbic (as well as the anterior cingulate) and visual processing regions showed significantly less category-specific activity in women than men. This was primarily driven by weaker overall activations to preferred-sex stimuli in women, though there was also some evidence of stronger limbic activations to nonpreferred-sex stimuli in women. Primary results were similar for heterosexual and homosexual participants. Women did show some evidence of category-specific responses in the visual processing regions, although even in these regions they exhibited less differential activity than men. In the anterior cingulate, a region with high concentrations of sex-hormone receptors, subjective and neural category specificity measures correlated positively for women but negatively for men, suggesting a possible sex difference in the role of the anterior cingulate. Overall, results suggest that men tend to show more differentiated neural responses than do women to erotic photographs of one sex compared to the other sex, though women may not be entirely indifferent to which sex is depicted.     

A classification of major natural habitats of Amazonian white-water river floodplains (várzeas)

Most countries sharing the Amazon basin have signed the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance but still lack complete wetland inventories, classification systems, and management plans. Amazonian wetlands vary considerably with respect to hydrology, water and soil fertility, vegetation cover, diversity in plant and animal species and primary and secondary productivity. Here, we propose a classification system of major natural habitats of Amazonian white-water river floodplains (várzeas) based on hydrological, water and soil chemistry and biological parameters. The Amazonian várzea is one of the largest Amazonian wetlands. It is exceptionally rich in plant and animal species and plays important roles in landscape history, evolution, hydrology and biogeochemical cycles of the Amazon basin. Most of Amazonia??s rural population lives in or along the várzea, emphasizing the economic importance of its natural resources. Our classification indicates five major systems, which are subdivided into 10 main habitats and up to 40 functional (vegetation) units of which the most important mesohabitats are described. We understand this classification as a dynamic system, as it is open to the inclusion of future research attempts and habitats without affecting the entire classification system. Our classification may be used for scientific purposes, such as comparative studies on biomass, productivity, biogeochemical cycles and biodiversity. Also, because the classification builds on habitat types and/or vegetation and functional units already distinguished by the local population it may be especially useful in guiding intelligent use of várzea habitat for specific management activities, such as agriculture, animal husbandry, forestry, fisheries, and conservation.     

角蛋白与肿瘤

角蛋白属于I型和II型中间纤维,是上皮细胞中间纤维的主要组成蛋白。角蛋白对上皮细胞及组织的稳定性和完整性具有重要的功能,此外,许多角蛋白还参与细胞内的信号转导通路。角蛋白的基因突变会导致一系列的遗传性皮肤病,还能引起肝脏、口腔粘膜、食管、外阴、直肠粘膜的白海绵痣等疾病。最近大量研究发现,角蛋白在人类多种类型肿瘤中也存在特异性表达,角蛋白及其抗体在肿瘤的免疫化学诊断、核转移、精确的分型或分类等方面具有重要的作用,并且还有助于预测肿瘤治疗反应和预后情况。因此,研究角蛋白与肿瘤之间的相互联系,揭示它们的作用机制对肿瘤的诊断和治疗有着重要意义。该文回顾了近年来角蛋白的分子生物学研究概况及临床应用,对各种角蛋白与肿瘤发生、进展、诊断以及预后的关系进行综述,同时对存在的问题及困难作了探讨并对未来的研究进行了展望。     

Reproductive Compensation: A Review of the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Gryllus</Emphasis> spp.—<Emphasis Type="Italic">Ormia ochracea</Emphasis> Host-Parasitoid System

Calling male field crickets (Gryllus spp.) are acoustically located and subsequently parasitized by the parasitoid fly, Ormia ochracea (Diptera: Tachinidae). Parasitism by O. ochracea results in cricket death. The reproductive compensation hypothesis posits that when a host’s residual reproductive value decreases, it would be adaptive for that host to shift its resources into current reproduction. Reproductive compensation has not been observed in the cricket-fly system. Here we review the studies to date that have investigated reproductive compensation in the cricket-fly interaction, in an attempt to understand why crickets do not compensate for their future reproductive losses. We conclude that the cricket-fly interaction may not be an ideal system in which to investigate reproductive compensation and furthermore, that reproductive compensation has been poorly investigated in this system.