Arthropod Diversity and Conservation in Old-Growth Northwest Forests

Old-growth forests of the Pacific Northwest extend along thecoastal region from southern Alaska to northern California andare composed largely of conifer rather than hardwood tree species.Many of these trees achieve great age (500–1,000 yr).Natural succession that follows forest stand destruction normallytakes over 100 years to reach the young mature forest stage.This succession may continue on into old-growth for centuries.The changing structural complexity of the forest over time,combined with the many different plant species that characterizesuccession, results in an array of arthropod habitats. It isestimated that 6,000 arthropod species may be found in suchforests—over 3,400 different species are known from asingle 6,400 ha site in Oregon. Our knowledge of these speciesis still rudimentary and much additional work is needed throughoutthis vast region. Many of these species play critical rolesin the dynamics of forest ecosystems. They are important innutrient cycling, as herbivores, as natural predators and parasitesof other arthropod species. This faunal diversity reflects thediversity of the environment and the arthropod complex providesa sensitive barometer of the conditions of the forest. Conservationefforts for forest arthropods are limited at present and controlledlargely by land-use policies. For example, an effort is beingmade to include arthropods in conservation efforts for the NorthernSpotted Owl and arthropods will be included in the Forest HealthMonitoring program now underway by the U.S. Forest Service.Evidence from other parts of the world suggest that arthropodsthat depend upon large pieces of dead wood may be particularlythreatened by forest management practices. Much remains to bedone in the conservation of forest arthropods.     

人工与自然恢复条件下地被层优势种大羽藓的遗传多样性比较

基于随机扩增多态性DNA(RAPD)方法比较了川西米亚罗地区3个人工云杉林样地和3个天然次生林样地大羽藓(Thuidium cym bifolium)种群的遗传多样性及分化程度。人工林种群的平均多态位点百分比(PPL)为12.7%,Ne i’s基因多样性(HE)为0.042,Shannon’s信息指数(S)为0.064,种群内遗传一致度(I)为0.952;天然次生林种群则依次为10.0%、0.027、0.043和0.960。人工林种群和天然次生林种群Gst分别为0.592和0.702,Fst分别为0.639和0.695;结合UPGMA聚类和PCA分析,发现种群间的基因交流极少。单因素方差分析显示,人工林下大羽藓种群的遗传多样性水平显著高于天然次生林下种群(p<0.05),表明在皆伐迹地上通过人工造林能有效地促进林下物种遗传多样性的恢复。     

Effects of Previous Land-Use on Plant Species Composition and Diversity in Mediterranean Forests

At some point in their history, most forests in the Mediterranean Basin have been subjected to intensive management or converted to agriculture land. Knowing how forest plant communities recovered after the abandonment of forest-management or agricultural practices (including livestock grazing) provides a basis for investigating how previous land management have affected plant species diversity and composition in forest ecosystems. Our study investigated the consequences of historical “land management” practices on present-day Mediterranean forests by comparing species assemblages and the diversity of (i) all plant species and (ii) each ecological group defined by species’ habitat preferences and successional status (i.e., early-, mid-, and late-successional species). We compared forest stands that differed both in land-use history and in successional stage. In addition, we evaluated the value of those stands for biodiversity conservation. The study revealed significant compositional differentiation among stands that was due to among-stand variations in the diversity (namely, species richness and evenness) of early-, intermediate-, and late-successional species. Historical land management has led to an increase in compositional divergences among forest stands and the loss of late-successional forest species.     

Predicting the Long-Term Effects of Hunting on Plant Species Composition and Diversity in Tropical Forests

Hunting can change abundances of vertebrate seed predators and seed dispersers, causing species‐specific changes in seed dispersal and seed predation and altering seedling communities. What are the consequences of these changes for the adult plant community in the next generation and beyond? Here, I derive equations showing how reduced seed dispersal reduces plant reproduction by intensifying kin competition, increasing vulnerability to natural enemies, and reducing the proportion of seeds passing through disperser guts. I parameterize these equations with available empirical data to estimate the likely effects on next‐generation abundances. I then consider the indirect effects and longer‐term feedbacks of changed seed or adult abundances on reproductive rates due to density‐dependent interactions with natural enemies and mutualists, as well as niche differentiation with competitors, and discuss their likely qualitative effects. The factors limiting seed disperser and seed predator populations in natural and hunted forests emerge as critical for determining the long‐term effects of hunting on rates of seed dispersal and seed predation. For example, where seed dispersers are held to a constant abundance by hunters, decreases in the availability of their preferred food plants are expected to lead to increased per‐seed dispersal probabilities, potentially to the point of compensating for the initial disperser decline. I close by discussing the likely reversibility of hunting‐induced changes in tropical forests and key questions and directions for future research.     

Quantifying Phylogenetic Beta Diversity: Distinguishing between 'True' Turnover of Lineages and Phylogenetic Diversity Gradients

The evolutionary dissimilarity between communities (phylogenetic beta diversity PBD) has been increasingly explored by ecologists and biogeographers to assess the relative roles of ecological and evolutionary processes in structuring natural communities. Among PBD measures, the PhyloSor and UniFrac indices have been widely used to assess the level of turnover of lineages over geographical and environmental gradients. However, these indices can be considered as 'broad-sense' measures of phylogenetic turnover as they incorporate different aspects of differences in evolutionary history between communities that may be attributable to phylogenetic diversity gradients. In the present study, we extend an additive partitioning framework proposed for compositional beta diversity to PBD. Specifically, we decomposed the PhyloSor and UniFrac indices into two separate components accounting for 'true' phylogenetic turnover and phylogenetic diversity gradients, respectively. We illustrated the relevance of this framework using simple theoretical and archetypal examples, as well as an empirical study based on coral reef fish communities. Overall, our results suggest that using PhyloSor and UniFrac may greatly over-estimate the level of spatial turnover of lineages if the two compared communities show contrasting levels of phylogenetic diversity. We therefore recommend that future studies use the 'true' phylogenetic turnover component of these indices when the studied communities encompass a large phylogenetic diversity gradient.     

Short-Lived Tree Species and Their Role as Indicators for Plant Diversity in the Restoration of Natural Forests

Anthropogenic forests, particularly conifer monocultures, today constitute a large proportion of Central European woodland. Conversion of such forest stands into abundantly structured mixed‐species woodland is within the focus of ecosystem restoration and is considered to affect forest biodiversity. Short‐lived tree species play an important role in such conversion processes and may serve as focal species. However, not much is known about their relationship with forest biodiversity. In this study, the short‐lived tree species, European mountain ash (Sorbus aucuparia L.), European white birch (Betula pendula Roth), Downy birch (B. pubescens Ehrh.), and Glossy buckthorn (Frangula alnus P. Mill.), commonly occurring throughout Central Europe, are investigated with regard to their relationship with plant diversity. The focus is on their occurrences in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.)–dominated forests in the Northeast German lowlands. A significant increase in vascular plant diversity is revealed in stands with the selected species’ presence, in comparison to stands without them. Increase in plant species numbers is highest where the respective species occurs in the tree and/or shrub layer, compared with their presence only in the herb layer. For bryophyte species, there is a less strong inverse relationship. An analysis of different species groups, such as threatened, woody, and typical forest species of higher plants, reveals no decrease in species numbers in these groups if short‐lived tree species are present. It is concluded that short‐lived tree species can be indicators for plant diversity assessment within forest restoration processes. As to causal explanations, effects of differing site conditions, assessed by use of Ellenberg indicator values, are discussed as well as possible active effects of the tree species changing their environment.     

Beta Diversity of Plant-Pollinator Networks and the Spatial Turnover of Pairwise Interactions

Interactions between species form complex networks that vary across space and time. Even without spatial or temporal constraints mutualistic pairwise interactions may vary, or rewire, across space but this variability is not well understood. Here, we quantify the beta diversity of species and interactions and test factors influencing the probability of turnover of pairwise interactions across space. We ask: 1) whether beta diversity of plants, pollinators, and interactions follow a similar trend across space, and 2) which interaction properties and site characteristics are related to the probability of turnover of pairwise interactions. Geographical distance was positively correlated with plant and interaction beta diversity. We find that locally frequent interactions are more consistent across space and that local flower abundance is important for the realization of pairwise interactions. While the identity of pairwise interactions is highly variable across space, some species-pairs form interactions that are locally frequent and spatially consistent. Such interactions represent cornerstones of interacting communities and deserve special attention from ecologists and conservation planners alike.     

Plant Functional Diversity and Species Diversity in the Mongolian Steppe

Background

The Mongolian steppe is one of the most important grasslands in the world but suffers from aridization and damage from anthropogenic activities. Understanding structure and function of this community is important for the ecological conservation, but has seldom been investigated.

Methodology/Principal Findings

In this study, a total of 324 quadrats located on the three main types of Mongolian steppes were surveyed. Early-season perennial forbs (37% of total importance value), late-season annual forbs (33%) and late-season perennial forbs (44%) were dominant in meadow, typical and desert steppes, respectively. Species richness, diversity and plant functional type (PFT) richness decreased from the meadow, via typical to desert steppes, but evenness increased; PFT diversity in the desert and meadow steppes was higher than that in typical steppe. However, above-ground net primary productivity (ANPP) was far lower in desert steppe than in the other two steppes. In addition, the slope of the relationship between species richness and PFT richness increased from the meadow, via typical to desert steppes. Similarly, with an increase in species diversity, PFT diversity increased more quickly in both the desert and typical steppes than that in meadow steppe. Random resampling suggested that this coordination was partly due to a sampling effect of diversity.

Conclusions/Significance

These results indicate that desert steppe should be strictly protected because of its limited functional redundancy, which its ecological functioning is sensitive to species loss. In contrast, despite high potential forage production shared by the meadow and typical steppes, management of these two types of steppes should be different: meadow steppe should be preserved due to its higher conservation value characterized by more species redundancy and higher spatial heterogeneity, while typical steppe could be utilized moderately because its dominant grass genus Stipa is resistant to herbivory and drought.     

东北山地次生林鸟类多样性的研究

山地次生林是东北地区半山区重要的生态环境。随着森林的采伐,次生林越来越多,与人类的关系也越来越密切。有关次生林鸟类多样性的研究,国内报道甚少。我们于1983—1984年4—7月在吉林省蛟     

林窗对格氏栲天然林更新层物种多样性和稳定性的影响

采用物种多样性指数和改进的M.Godron稳定性法研究林窗干扰对格氏栲(Castanopsis kawakamii)自然保护区天然林更新层物种多样性和稳定性的影响.结果表明:林窗干扰改善了微环境,表现在林窗和林下乔灌层树种重要值和多样性存在差异.林窗乔木层中丰富度指数R、优势度指数D、Shannon-Wiener指数H、均优多指数Z均高于林下,均匀度指数Js和群落优势度指数C低于林下;灌木层中R、D、H、Js、Z指数均高于林下,群落优势度指数C低于林下,林窗物种多样性更为丰富,生态优势种不明显,群落向复杂化和均匀化方向发展.林窗与林下乔木层Jaccard相似性系数Cj、Sorenson相似性系数CS、Bray-Curtis指数CN相对较低,Morista-Horn指数CmH较高,林窗对树种更新具有促进作用;灌木层相似性系数Cj、Cs、CN、CmH均较高,物种组成基本一致.根据M.Godron稳定性原理拟合出稳定性模型,林窗和林下乔木层分别为对数模型与二次函数模型,林窗和林下灌木层最佳拟合模型均为对数模型.林窗乔木层植物处于稳定状态,林下乔木层植物不稳定;林窗和林下灌木层植物均处于稳定状态.林窗和林下乔木层树种中以桂北木姜子(Litsea subcoriacea)重要值最高,说明其在森林更新中占有重要地位,可能对格氏栲种群更新产生较大影响.林下乔木层中格氏栲重要值较低,格氏栲更新存在困难,而林窗干扰促进了格氏栲的向上生长和重要值的提升,可有效实现格氏栲种群的更新和恢复.     

低丘人工林林下植被物种多样性初步研究

选取江西省泰和县狗丝茅岭低丘荒山人工造林l0a的人工生态系统中8种人工林主要类型和1个对照区,通过比较这些类型林下植被的物种多样性(物种丰富度和Shannon-Wiener指数)和相关的环境因子,揭示林下植被物种多样性的差异及其与环境因子之间的关系。结果显示：人工林类型(造林树种)、林分组成(纯林或混交林)和林分密度对物种多样性的影响较为明显,其中林分密度的影响最为显著：各人工林类型林下植被的Shannon—Wiener指数与物种丰富度具有大体相似的规律,即在相近造林密度下,不同造林树种其林下植被物种多样性以针叶纯林稍占优势,针阔混交林次之,而阔叶纯林相对较低：针叶林林下植被物种多样性虽然最高,但针叶林土壤的持水力相对较差,有机质含量也较低,而阔叶纯林相对较好,针阔混交林则最佳。     

Characteristics of Old-Growth and Secondary Forests in Relation to Age and Typhoon Disturbance

Many properties of forest ecosystems, such as species composition and forest structure, naturally vary with forest age. However, in regions prone to cyclone disturbances, both forest age and cyclone severities can play a role shaping these properties. To evaluate potential effects of an altered cyclone regime on forest ecosystems, it is necessary to disentangle the roles of cyclones and forest age on different forest characteristics. In this study, we compared species composition and forest structure at plot level across sites with similar climate and topographic backgrounds, yet differing in age and typhoon severities in northeastern Taiwan. We found shorter tree stature, higher wood density, higher tree species diversity, and lower typhoon-induced tree mortality in the sites with more severe typhoon disturbances. On the other hand, regardless of typhoon severity, the sites of younger ages had a considerably smaller amount of woody debris, suggesting that it takes time for the accumulation of woody debris. More typhoon-induced canopy gaps at sites with more severe typhoon influences highlights a role of typhoons in canopy dynamics. However, the lack of gaps prior to typhoon disturbances in the less severely affected forest is likely related to the low background mortality associated with the relative young age of the forest. Our results indicate that frequent or severe typhoon disturbances can homogenize some of the structural differences among forests of different ages. If the frequency or severity of cyclones increase in the future, many forests, including old-growth forests, may gradually lose large trees.     

关帝山次生林区典型森林交错带物种多样性研究

森林交错带富于高的生物多样性。应用Shannon-Weiner指数、Simpson指数、Margalef指数、Pielou指数,研究了关帝山次生林区森林交错带中处于不同演替阶段的群落物种多样性动态特征,同时对交错带内群落与相邻群落的物种多样性特怔进行了对比分析。结果表明：处于森林演替不同阶段的交错带,在由阔叶林、针阔叶混交林到针叶林的演替过程中,Shannon－Weiner多样性指数、Margalef丰富度指数均表现出单峰变化趋势,在演替中后期的针阔叶混交林阶段,指数值最高。Simpson优势度指数则表现出凹形变化．不同于多样性、丰富度指数,在演替中后期,达到最低值。Pielou均匀度指数表现出下降趋势。交错带内群落与相邻群落相比,Shannon－Weiner多样性指数较高,具有高的物种多样性,边际效应表现为正效应。Margalef丰富度指数变化与Shannon－Weiner多样性指数变化不一致,只在一定程度上证明了边际正效应的影响。两指数共同反映出研究地区的森林交错带内群落具有较高的物种多样性。     

Nutrient Limitation on Ecosystem Productivity and Processes of Mature and Old-Growth Subtropical Forests in China

Nitrogen (N) is considered the dominant limiting nutrient in temperate regions, while phosphorus (P) limitation frequently occurs in tropical regions, but in subtropical regions nutrient limitation is poorly understood. In this study, we investigated N and P contents and N:P ratios of foliage, forest floors, fine roots and mineral soils, and their relationships with community biomass, litterfall C, N and P productions, forest floor turnover rate, and microbial processes in eight mature and old-growth subtropical forests (stand age >80 yr) at Dinghushan Biosphere Reserve, China. Average N:P ratios (mass based) in foliage, litter (L) layer and mixture of fermentation and humus (F/H) layer, and fine roots were 28.3, 42.3, 32.0 and 32.7, respectively. These values are higher than the critical N:P ratios for P limitation proposed (16–20 for foliage, ca. 25 for forest floors). The markedly high N:P ratios were mainly attributed to the high N concentrations of these plant materials. Community biomass, litterfall C, N and P productions, forest floor turnover rate and microbial properties were more strongly related to measures of P than N and frequently negatively related to the N:P ratios, suggesting a significant role of P availability in determining ecosystem production and productivity and nutrient cycling at all the study sites except for one prescribed disturbed site where N availability may also be important. We propose that N enrichment is probably a significant driver of the potential P limitation in the study area. Low P parent material may also contribute to the potential P limitation. In general, our results provided strong evidence supporting a significant role for P availability, rather than N availability, in determining ecosystem primary productivity and ecosystem processes in subtropical forests of China.     

陆地植物群落物种多样性演替研究进展

植物群落物种多样性在不同梯度上,其变化规律不一致.物种多样性与纬度呈反相关关系,与水分关系密切,表现出不同变化规律,与海拔主要表现为反相关关系和中间高度膨胀规律.土壤盐度、水分、肥力对物种多样性也有影响.在不同演替阶段物种多样性出现不同变化规律,群落结构最复杂的演替阶段,物种多样性最高.     

Fix Success and Accuracy of Global Positioning System Collars in Old-Growth Temperate Coniferous Forests

Abstract: Global Positioning System (GPS) telemetry is used extensively to study animal distribution and resource selection patterns but is susceptible to biases resulting from data omission and spatial inaccuracies. These data errors may cause misinterpretation of wildlife habitat selection or spatial use patterns. We used both stationary test collars and collared free-ranging American black bears (Ursus americanus) to quantify systemic data loss and location error of GPS telemetry in mountainous, old-growth temperate forests of Olympic National Park, Washington, USA. We developed predictive models of environmental factors that influence the probability of obtaining GPS locations and evaluated the ability of weighting factors derived from these models to mitigate data omission biases from collared bears. We also examined the effects of microhabitat on collar fix success rate and examined collar accuracy as related to elevation changes between successive fixes. The probability of collars successfully obtaining location fixes was positively associated with elevation and unobstructed satellite view and was negatively affected by the interaction of overstory canopy and satellite view. Test collars were 33% more successful at acquiring fixes than those on bears. Fix success rates of collared bears varied seasonally and diurnally. Application of weighting factors to individual collared bear fixes recouped only 6% of lost data and failed to reduce seasonal or diurnal variation in fix success, suggesting that variables not included in our model contributed to data loss. Test collars placed to mimic bear bedding sites received 16% fewer fixes than randomly placed collars, indicating that microhabitat selection may contribute to data loss for wildlife equipped with GPS collars. Horizontal collar errors of >800 m occurred when elevation changes between successive fixes were >400 m. We conclude that significant limitations remain in accounting for data loss and error inherent in using GPS telemetry in coniferous forest ecosystems and that, at present, resource selection patterns of large mammals derived from GPS telemetry should be interpreted cautiously.     

植物种多样性对生态系统功能的影响

采用8种1年生植物,利用室外盆栽方法构建的植物群落对物种多样性与群落生产力、杂草入侵性之间的关系及其潜在的作用机理进行了研究.结果表明,各物种单播时其生产力和抗杂草入侵能力都有较大差异.物种多样性与群落生产力之间不存在线性关系,而呈现单峰格局关系,即在一定范围内(本研究为4种),物种多样性对生产力增加有促进作用,超过该范围,物种多样性增加,群落生产力不再增加.但群落生产力和物种多样性均与杂草入侵量之间呈显著负相关关系.相对产量总和(RYT)分析表明,资源互补效应是本研究中所观察到的多样性-生产力、多样性-入侵性及生产力-入侵性关系的主要作用机理.     

百花山植物群落物种多样性研究

基于百花山50个样方的调查资料，从不同类型群落的物种多样性及其与海拔的关系等方面对百花山植被进行了分析，并且用DCA排序和海拔高程排序对物种多样性在环境梯度上的分布格局进行了初步研究。结果表明：群落内不同生长型的物种丰富度指数在森林群落中大小顺序为草本层＞灌木层＞乔木层，灌丛群落主要表现为草本层﹥灌木层，只有荆条灌丛表现为灌木层＞草本层；Shannon-Wiener指数在山杨—华北落叶松群落中表现为灌木层＞草本层＞乔木层,其他森林群落为草本层＞灌木层＞乔木层，在灌丛群落中主要表现为草本层＞灌木层，只有荆条灌丛表现为灌木层＞草本层；均匀度指数在灌丛群落中表现为灌木层＞草本层，在辽东栎林和山杨—华北落叶松林中表现为灌木层＞乔木层＞草本层,而其他森林群落表现为乔木层＞灌木层＞草本层。物种多样性在DCA第一轴排序和海拔高程梯度上都表现出单峰曲线变化趋势，但拟和效果的显著程度不同：丰富度和均匀度指数在海拔高程上曲线的拟和效果优于DCA环境梯度排序效果；而多样性指数则相反。     

Plant Traits Rather than Species Richness Explain Ecological Processes in Subtropical Forests

Ecosystems - Functional traits and species richness have been used to assess variation in ecological functions in multiple ecosystems. However, biodiversity effects on ecosystem functioning could...