Craniometric measurements of artificial cranial deformations in Eastern European skulls

Standardized lateral cephalograms of eleven skulls with artificial cranial deformations from Eastern Europe and twenty normal skulls from the same population were made, digitized and imported into the AutoCAD 2005 computer program. The x- and y-coordinates of defined measuring points were determined and angle measurements were made. The form difference of the skulls was tested with the Euclidean Distance Matrix Analysis (EDMA) and the difference of the angle measurements were compared statistically using the non-parametric Mann-Whitney test. All deformed skulls belonged to the tabular fronto-occipital type of deformation. The results of the EDMA and the angle measurements indicated significant differences for the neurocranium and the facial cranium in height between the normal and the deformed skulls, but not in the cranial length. It can be concluded that in Eastern Europe one method of cranial molding was used. The deformation of the neurocranium also affected the development of the facial cranium regarding facial height. This may indicate a dependency of the developmental fields of the neurocranium and facial cranium.     

A method for estimation of cranial capacity from cephalometric roentgenograms

A method of estimating cranial capacity of either living subjects or cadavers or dry skulls has been developed and tested. This method requires a lateral and a frontal (A-P) cephalogram. The area of the projection of the cranial cavity on the lateral cephalogram, A_L, is determined by use of a planimeter and the breadth, b, is determined by direct measurement of its projection on the frontal cephalogram. These data are applied to a formula, V = KA_Lb, where K is a constant which has been determined by tests of a similar population of skulls of known volume. Ten or 12 skulls should be sufficient for the purpose of determining K. The method is simple and direct, and offers accuracy and reliability as good or better than the best methods presently employed.     

鲤鱼墩新石器时代居民头骨的形态学分析

本文对广东省湛江市遂溪县鲤鱼墩新石器时代遗址所出土的5例人类头骨进行了形态学分析。这些个体在种族特征方面较为一致, 应属于蒙古大人种的范畴, 可被视为"古华南类型"群体, 较接近于现代的南亚类型。岭南地区6组史前时期人群的聚类分析(马氏距离)和特征分析结果表明, 鲤鱼墩组、东湾仔北组、鱿鱼岗组与河宕组之间存在相对较近的形态学关系; 柳江人和甑皮岩组关系最为密切。在更为广泛的地理空间范围内, 对18组不同时期人群进行的聚类分析(马氏距离)和因子分析的结果显示, 鲤鱼墩人群与其他人群保持了相对较远的形态学距离。另外, 岭南地区的古人类从晚更新世阶段到新石器时代晚期, 在颅骨的绝对测量值上反映出一个短颅化、狭颅化和高颅化的过程, 而颅指数反映的却是长颅化的趋势, 说明该地区古人类的颅宽值较之颅长值减小得更快, 形成了颅骨尺寸在绝对值上的减小, 在颅指数上却反映出长颅化趋势的现象。由此可以推测, 现代南亚类型居民的典型长颅型特征可能是在全新世之初开始逐渐形成的。     

Multivariate geographical variation of the Red fox (Vulpes vulpes) in Wales

Seven different cranial measurements of foxes of known sex were recorded. Univariate and multivariate techniques were used to study the geographical variability of the skulls. A clear multivariate separation of skulls from six counties in Wales is demonstrated, which is correlated with certain geographic features of the areas from which the skulls were obtained.     

Cranial kinesis in the amphibia: a review

All extant orders of amphibians are characterized by kinetic skulls. Main type of intracranial movability in amphibians is pleurokinetism, that is supplemented in different amphibian groups by various types of rhyncho- and prokinetism. The most primitive pattern of cranial kinesis is revealed in the stegocrotaphic gymnophions. More paedomorphic species retain general cranial flexibility that is characteristic of larval skull. That is unfavourable for evolution of well-regulated (adult) cranial kinesis and related feeding adaptations. Kinetism is also reduced in the species with heavily ossified skulls. Adaptive role and evolution of cranial kinesis in amphibians are discussed.     

中国古人类颅容量的推算方法比较

古人类的体质特征和现代人不同,依据现代人头骨测量数据计算出来的公式往往不适于古人类颅容量的推算。获取古人类颅容量最准确的方法是复原出其内部的颅内模;然而,由于颅内模的复原工艺复杂,加上古人类头骨化石数量稀少且多数残破,如何准确地推算其颅容量,成为古人学者研究的难点问题之一。本文通过对中国境内发现的不同演化阶段的古人类颅容量推算方法的对比和验证,试图找出推算古人类颅容量的最适合的公式法。研究结果显示：1）早期现代人解剖特征同现代人基本接近,依据现代人头骨推算出来的回归方程可以用来推算其颅容量;2）直立人头骨厚重、脑颅低矮,体质特征不同于现代人,其颅容量的推算不能使用现代人公式法。依据本文中国直立人头骨测量数据推导出来的回程方程（C=-1301.944+60606L+0.718b+9.936h）适合其颅容量的推算。采用此直立人公式法,推算出蓝田直立人的颅容量为918 mL;3）古老型智人的体质特征位于直立人和现代人之间,对其颅容量的推算不能一概而论：体质特征接近直立人的,如大荔人、华龙洞6号,可采用直立人公式法;体质特征接近早期现代人的,如许昌1号,可采用现代人公式法;体质特征位于直立人和早期现代人中间位置的,如马坝人、金牛山人,其颅容量约等于采用现代人公式法和采用直立人公式法获得的颅容量的平均值。     

Early Holocene human skeletal remains from Sumidouro Cave, Lagoa Santa, Brazil: history of discoveries, geological and chronological context, and comparative cranial morphology

In this work, we present new evidence supporting the idea that the first Americans were very distinct from late and recent Native Americans and Asians in terms of cranial morphology. The study is based on 30 early Holocene specimens recovered from Sumidouro Cave (Lagoa Santa region, central Brazil) by Peter Lund in 1843. Sumidouro is the largest known collection of Paleoindian skulls deriving from a single site. Six different multivariate statistical methods were applied to assess the morphological affinities of the Sumidouro skulls in comparison to Howells' worldwide extant series and late archaic Brazilian series (Base Aérea and Tapera). The results show a clear association between Sumidouro and Australo-Melanesians and none with late Asian and Amerindian series. These results are in accordance with those of previous studies of final Pleistocene/early Holocene human skulls from South, Central, and North America, attesting to a colonization of the New World by at least two different, succeeding biological populations: an early one with a cranial morphology similar to that found today in the African and Australian continents, and a later one with a morphology similar to that found today among northeastern Asians.     

Paleoclimatic Variation and Brain Expansion during Human Evolution

One of the major adaptations during the evolution of Homo sapiens was an increase in brain size. Here we present evidence that a significant and substantial proportion of variation in brain size may be related to changes in temperature. Based on a sample of 109 fossilized hominid skulls, we found that cranial capacities were highly correlated with paleoclimatic changes in temperature, as indexed by oxygen isotope data and sea-surface temperature. Indeed, as much as 52% of the variance in the cranial capacity of these skulls could be accounted for by temperature variation at 100 ka intervals. As an index of more short-term seasonal fluctuations in temperature, we examined the latitude of the sites from which the crania originated. More than 22% of the variance in cranial capacity of these skulls could be accounted for by variation in equatorial distance.     

Effects of developmental and functional interactions on mouse cranial variability through late ontogeny

The mammalian skull performs a variety of functions and its growth and development mirrors this complexity. Cranial growth and development have been actively studied for many years. Despite this interest, the variation in the patterns and processes of skull growth has attracted little attention. An important and unanswered question is the extent to which patterns of cranial covariation and variation are dynamically reworked throughout postnatal growth. To address this question, we examine patterns of variability in random-bred mouse skulls aged 35, 90, and 150 days. Using a battery of both Procrustes coordinate and Euclidean distance-based methods, we measure mean shape, canalization, developmental stability, and morphological integration in these skulls. We predict that the patterns of variability are dynamic, particularly between the youngest and the two oldest age groups due to the influence of functional effects such as postweaning mastication. We also hypothesize that patterns of variability are structured by the same functional and developmental factors that have been shown to influence cranial growth in primates. Our results indicate that contrary to our predictions, patterns of canalization, developmental stability, and morphological integration are stabilized before 35 days. The mean shape, however, changed significantly with growth. We found that only the facial region showed significant integration as predicted by the functional matrix model used in other studies of integration. These results indicate that phenotypic integration in these mice does not closely match those found for primate species, suggesting that comparisons between species should be made with care.     

Early Holocene human remains from the Argentinean Pampas: Additional evidence for distinctive cranial morphology of early South Americans

The cranial morphology of Early Holocene American human samples is characterized by a long and narrow cranial vault, whereas more recent samples exhibit a shorter and wider cranial vault. Two hypotheses have been proposed to account for the morphological differences between early and late‐American samples: (a) the migratory hypothesis that suggests that the morphological variation between early and late American samples was the result of a variable number of migratory waves; and (b) the local diversification hypothesis, that is, the morphological differences between early and late American samples were mainly generated by local, random (genetic drift), and nonrandom factors (selection and phenotypic plasticity). We present the first craniometric study of three early skulls from the Argentinean Pampas, dated ～8,000 cal. years BP (Arroyo Seco 2, Chocorí, and La Tigra), and one associated with mega‐faunal remains (Fontezuelas skull). In addition, we studied several Late Holocene samples. We show that the skulls from the Argentinean Pampas are morphologically similar to other Early Holocene American skulls (i.e., Lagoa Santa from Brazil, Tequendama, Checua, and Aguazuque from Colombia, Lauricocha from Peru, and early Mexicans) that exhibit long and narrow cranial vaults. These samples differ from the Late Holocene American samples that exhibit a shorter and wider cranial vault. Our results underscore the important differences in cranial morphology between early and late‐American samples. However, we emphasize the need for further studies to discuss alternative hypotheses regarding such differences. Am J Phys Anthropol 143:298–305, 2010. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

The taxonomic status of the Pygmy hippopotamus, Choeropsis liberiensis, from the Niger Delta

The isolated and possibly extinct population of the pygmy hippopotamus in the Niger Delta is described as a new subspecies and named Choeropsis liberiensis heslopi subsp. n. Eight cranial and dental characters enable the four available skulls of this subspecies to be clearly distinguished from all available skulls of C. l. liberiensis (Morton). The range of this species is shown to be very unusual amongst the vertebrates of the West African forest.     

Problems of techniques in anthropometric studies in India

Anthropometric studies in India have been conducted on a fairly large scale but the lack of uniform techniques has rendered data non-comparable. Here, the magnitude of differences in values on account of differences in techniques under two methods has been demonstrated by measuring the cranial height of 35 skulls in the Department of Anthropology, University of Lucknow, India. The direct method gives as much as 5 mm lower values than the subtraction method. Furthermore, the position of vertex relative to apex is highly variable. Such differences are likely to be more magnified in skulls with plano-occipitals. It is therefore re-emphasized that anthropometrists should employ uniform techniques, and adequately describe them so that the data remains comparable.     

Brief communication: neurotraumatological aspects of head injuries resulting from sharp and blunt force in the early medieval period of southwestern Germany

Approximately 10% (33 of 304) of the predominantly male skulls from the 6th through 8th centuries in southwestern Germany exhibit cranial fractures derived from blunt or sharp force trauma. No evidence of fracture healing characterizes 24% (n = 8) of these individuals. All nonhealed fractures were caused by sharp force, and four of these wounds cross the sagittal sinus. The lengths of these straight-edged wounds, produced exclusively by sword blows, measure around 8.0 cm for fatal, and about 5.0 cm for nonfatal wounds. Seventy-six percent (n = 25) of these skulls exhibit some healing, which indicates that these injuries did not lead to immediate death. In this group are all depressed fractures resulting from blunt force blows. Two thirds of the 45 cranial injuries noted on these 33 skulls are located on the left side of these individuals, with a concentration in the frontoparietal region. Bony indications of wound infection occur in four cases (12%). Three crania exhibit circular trepanations in association with fractures. These phenomena are discussed in the context of modern neurotraumatological knowledge.     

中国与非洲近代-现代人类某些颅骨特征的对比及其意义--中国与非洲人类头骨特征对比之二

对近代—现代非洲和中国人群26项颅骨特征的观测和分析显示非洲人具有一些显示其特异性的颅骨特征,但多数特征的表现与东亚人类非常接近,提示现代人群体质特征的趋同性。作者认为非洲人在多数颅骨特征的表现方式上较中国人更为多样化,表明现代非洲人群在体质特征的表现上较东亚人类具有更宽广的形态变异谱。作者基于许多东亚、欧洲及澳洲人类的颅骨特征在非洲人群具有较高的出现率或明显的表现等现象提出一些未来研究中有待解决的问题。     

Quantification of cranial convergences in arvicolids (Rodentia)

Cranial convergence in nine species of arvicolids is quantified phenetically using geometric morphometry. In a preliminary step, a hypothesis about phyletic relationships is proposed as a framework against which to examine morphological comparisons. The cranial morphology is then depicted in three series of 37, 20 and 13 landmarks characterizing the lower, upper and lateral sides of the skull respectively. Superimposition (Procrustes) methods are used to quantify shape differences and establish phenograms for the three sides of the skull. The phenogram obtained for lateral sides reveals a strong connection between skull profile and mode of life: surface dwelling forms have elongated skulls whereas burrowers have angular skulls. The phenogram of the lower sides show no clear correlation between shape and mode of life. Analysis of the upper cranial sides revealed a substantial difference between hard-substrate burrowers and other ecological groups. The results of the morphological analyses are compared with the phyletic hypothesis and with ecological data to explore how convergences take place in the evolution of arvicolids. Analyses pointed out three instances of morphological convergence: one between Synaptomys cooperi and voles, one between Lagurus lagurus and lemmings, and one between Myopus schisticolor and some voles. Four main ecological events are discussed.     

A new approach to mammalian cranial analysis, illustrated by examples of prosimian primates

Latex endocranial casts, which may be made without damaging the skull, reveal much of the information provided by a hemisected skull. Examination of drawings of endocasts superimposed on skulls may provide insight into the biological significance of skull and brain morphology. The high degree of cranial flexion and the globose brain shape of Daubentonia appear to be related to the functional demands of its gnawing mechanism. The broad frontal lobes of indriids are correlated with orbital orientation; differences in frontal lobe sulcal pattern suggest greater elaboration of the motor filed for the hand in indriids than in lemurids. Several features of lorisid cranial anatomy are discussed. It is suggested that, as a first approximation, increased splanchnocranial declination in small prosimians results from the necessity of accommodating relatively large eyes in a skull with a relatively small splanchnocranium.     

Cranial kinesis in lizards (Lacertilia): Origin,biomechanics, and evolution

Various methods of investigation of cranial kinesis are compared. The biomechanical model of the amphikinetic cranial mechanism of lizards developed by Frazzetta (1962) corresponds to the skulls of species with the dependent streptostyly. A new modification of this model is proposed for species with the independent streptostyly, which conforms to the results of experimental investigations of cranial kinesis in living lizards. The lacertilian amphikinesis has developed on the basis of the pleurokinesis inherited from fish ancestors of tetrapods. Movable connections of the maxillo-buccal segments with the axial skull persisted in the amphikinetic skull and were completed by the transversal flexible connections in the dermatocranial roof and loose connections of dermatocranium with the braincase. The development of new movable intracranial connections could have been preceded by transformations in the jaw musculature (formation of the pterygoideus muscle and inclined position of the external jaw adductor), which caused longitudinal jaw movements. Development of new movable connections within the skull was triggered by paedomorphosis processes. In various lacertilian groups, the cranial kinesis was improved by the development of various forms of streptostyly and flexipalatality.     

A comparative study of stereolithographically modelled skulls of Petralona and Broken Hill: implications for future studies of middle Pleistocene hominid evolution

Computer generated three-dimensional stereolithographic models of middle Pleistocene skulls from Petralona and Broken Hill are described and compared. The anterior cranial fossae of these models are also compared with that of another middle Pleistocene skull, Arago 21. Stereolithographic modelling reproduces not only the outer surfaces of skulls, but also features within the substance of the bones, and details of the internal braincase. The skulls of Petralona and, to a somewhat lesser degree, Broken Hill are extremely pneumatized. Previously undescribed features associated with pneumatization are detailed, along with their possible functional significance, polarity, and potential for understanding hominid cranial variation. Petralona and Broken Hill also exhibit a dramatic suite of cerebral features that is probably related to extensive pneumatization of the skull, namely frontal lobes that are tilted and located behind rather than over the orbits, laterally flared temporal lobes, marked occipital projection, and basal location of the cerebellum. Comparison of the anterior cranial fossae of Petralona, Broken Hill, and Arago 21 suggests that external resemblance of skulls may not always correlate with endocranial similarity. We believe that stereolithographic reconstructions have the potential for helping to resolve difficult questions about the origins of Neanderthal and anatomically modern people.