Psychobiogeography: meanings of nature and motivations for a democratized conservation ethic

The language of ecosystem science is pervaded by value-laden terms such as pristine, fragile, disturbance, balance, dominance and alien species. Such terms have high status and are often used in the rhetoric of the conservation ethic. Here, I consider the possibility of the use of less value-laden terms such as change, increase, decrease and so on. This would distinguish between values and perceived trends or states and leave ecosystem science to deal with what is verifiable. However, I also consider the opposite point of view, in that the value-laden terms, like 'the balance of nature', relate to how a wide range of people feel about nature and are effective emotive motivators of the conservation ethic in society, providing a common language for a discourse between ecosystem scientists and other people.     

Methodological standards for nature conservation: casestudy landscape planning

One of the main reasons for the insufficient realisation of nature conservation objectives, especially in competition with land use and development, is the lack of methodological standards. Existing standards are not widely accepted by the users, who often apply very different schemes and techniques for evaluation and monitoring, to work on the same kind of problems. In the complex social context of modern communities, that increasingly rely on standardised regulations, a loss of reliability and public acceptance of results can consequently occur.The demand for methodological standards in nature conservation increased rapidly during the past years, due to a more comprehensive overall concept including used or anthropogeneous ecosystems and landscapes and general globalisation trends, including nature conservation strategies and laws. In Europe the recent development within the European Union, especially the conservation concept of Natura 2000, requires harmonisation of planning, management and monitoring methods.Regardless of this, methodological standardisation is not yet a major topic in nature conservation sciences. Many disadvantages and obstacles of such standards are discussed, such as the fact that the complexity and individuality of nature forbids standardisation in general. However such arguments merge methodological and thematic standardisation. In a 3-year developmental study, the challenges and limits of standardisation in nature conservation were analysed, thematically focusing on conservation-related items of landscape planning in Germany. A board of experts, comprising outstanding conservationists from universities, research institutions and private enterprises produced draft papers for standardisation (called yellow prints). Further representative scientists and conservationists were involved in the stepwise definition of standards. Such drafts are now available for 5 methodological fields of landscape planning (fauna, vegetation, biotopes, evaluation schemes, landscape visions). They represent best practice in German landscape planning in these methodological fields.The developed procedures of standard-setting are applicable to other fields of nature conservation on regional and international levels as well.     

Dungeness–a national nature conservation perspective

DOODY, P., 1989. Dungeness–a national nature conservation perspective . Vegetated shingle structures in Great Britain are very restricted in number and almost all examples are of some value for nature conservation. Most of the major sites are of geomorphological significance and have important plant and animal communities. Many of these have been adversely affected by man, mainly through gravel extraction and building.
Dungeness is the single largest area and has suffered more extensive and intensive developments than ony other. Despite this, it remains the most important site for stable vegetated shingle with its associated animals (notably invertebrates), and is an important geomorphological feature.     

Honest signalling through chemicals by elephants with applications for care and conservation

Chemical signals are difficult to fake because they are often directly associated with phenotype and physiological condition, and hence likely to be honest signals for intraspecific communication. Chemical signals may be modified after release by the sender or by the environment. The proximate and ultimate signal meanings are dependent not only on the condition of the sender, but also on the physiological status of the receiver. Understanding the relationships and linkage among signal modality, signal function and receiver response is an essential first step before using natural signals for animal care and conservation. Our studies on chemical communication in Asian and African elephants combine observational and experimental work in captive and wild settings to further this understanding. Recent discoveries of pheromones in Asian elephants and the biochemistry of these compounds provide strong evidence that such chemical signals are honest indicators of reproductive status. Chemically identifying the signals and verifying their functional context with statistically robust behavioural studies are essential aspects for understanding the communication system. Additionally, the investigative process of discovering, identifying and verifying the function of chemical signals among captive elephants offers safe and stimulating enrichments. The knowledge garnered from such studies has potential conservation benefits for managing wild elephant populations. A firm foundation of scientific information is required for successful behavioural investigations and applied conservation and enrichment components.     

Ecological processes: A key element in strategies for nature conservation

Summary A common approach to nature conservation is to identify and protect natural ‘assets’ such as ecosystems and threatened species. While such actions are essential, protection of assets will not be effective unless the ecological processes that sustain them are maintained. Here, we consider the role of ecological processes and the complementary perspective for conservation arising from an emphasis on process. Many kinds of ecological processes sustain biodiversity: including climatic processes, primary productivity, hydrological processes, formation of biophysical habitats, interactions between species, movements of organisms and natural disturbance regimes. Anthropogenic threats to conservation exert their influence by modifying or disrupting these processes. Such threats extend across tenures, they frequently occur offsite, they commonly induce non‐linear responses, changes may be irreversible and the full consequences may not be experienced for lengthy periods. While many managers acknowledge these considerations in principle, there is much scope for greater recognition of ecological processes in nature conservation and greater emphasis on long time‐frames and large spatial scales in conservation planning. Practical measures that promote ecological processes include: monitoring to determine the trajectory and rate of processes; incorporating surrogates for processes in conservation and restoration projects; specific interventions to manipulate and restore processes; and planning for the ecological future before options are foreclosed. The long‐term conservation of biodiversity and the well‐being of human society depend upon both the protection of natural assets and maintaining the integrity of the ecological processes that sustain them.     

The National Trust and nature conservation: prospects for the future

The range and extent of nature conservation interests on land owned by the National Trust are reviewed and the high level of protection which can be afforded to such features is stressed. Some of the threats to such interests are examined and possible conflicts between management for nature conservation and for other Trust objectives are considered. The importance of survey and monitoring are emphasized. It is argued that nature conservationists need to adopt a view of plant communities which recognises their dynamic nature and which accepts the possibility of change. Evidence is reviewed which supports the non-equilibrium state of some communities, the impact of rare events and the importance of life history phenomena. Some possible future directions of nature conservation in the Trust are discussed.     

Ecological restoration: A new frontier for nature conservation and economics

Ecological restoration is still perceived by many conservationists, and the majority of economists, as a diversion, a delusion, and – far worse – a waste of money. In this paper we point out that restoration is in fact complementary not only to nature conservation but also to sustainable, equitable socio-economic development. This is because restoring and augmenting the natural capital base generates jobs and improves livelihoods and the quality of life of all in the economy.

In developing countries, where most biodiversity hotspots occur, both conservation of nature and the restoration of degraded ecosystems will find local support only if they are clearly linked to socio-economic development. Conversely, sound socio-economic development in the environmentally damaged portions of those countries undoubtedly will require ecological restoration of the natural capital base. Nature conservation, ecological restoration, and sustainable economic development policies should therefore be planned, budgeted and executed conjointly.     

Valuing biodiversity and nature conservation at a local level

At a time where much of the discussion about major issues in nature conservation is necessarily undertaken at a global level, it is still important to consider the needs of the smaller organizations who do much of the grass roots work in the protection of wildlife and biodiversity. This study focuses on one such group, and examines how the contingent valuation method can be used to help to inform its decisions relating to the management of its portfolio of reserves in order to maximize benefits to its members. This paper argues that at a local level, where actions will not have significant global effects, contingent valuation methodology can inform decisions by assessing the value of additional reserves or particular conservation programmes to members in terms of their willingness to pay to acquire or implement them.     

Recipe for success: A network perspective of partnership in nature conservation

Successful conservation initiatives require collaboration between stakeholders across a range of organisational foci and expertise. In Romania, the EU LIFE Nature programme is the most important financing instrument for nature conservation, and projects commonly involve partnerships between public authorities, NGOs, enterprises, and research institutions. To understand strengths and gaps in conservation partnerships for LIFE Nature projects implemented in Romania, we applied a Social Network Analysis approach to 85 partner organisations across 35 projects. We complemented this approach with a questionnaire directed to project managers to identify the criteria for selecting partners, and the role of partners in the project. The network included mostly public authorities (50%), yet the Romanian Ornithological Society (NGO) and the University of Bucharest were the most influent organisations in the network. Public authorities, park authorities, and enterprises were often selected as partners because of their financial contributions and local connections. In contrast, research institutions and NGOs were selected as partners because of their technical expertise and policy influence at the national level. Furthermore, research institutions, parks authorities and NGOs were involved in proposal writing, preparatory and management activities, while public authorities had no predefined roles in LIFE projects. The analysis also showed that the Romanian conservation system is polycentric, with influence shared between research organisations, NGOs, and public authorities. Interviews with project managers revealed that Romania submits relatively fewer projects compared to Western EU countries because public agencies have low technical and logistic capacity. We recommend a national level strategy for increasing project submission rates and quality of proposals that addresses the need for strengthening ties between core organisations and public authorities, especially at the local level. These findings are likely to be applicable to other EU member states that are currently struggling to get funding for conservation projects, ultimately moving the EU closer to achieving the European Union Biodiversity Strategy 2020 targets.     

Legal instruments in private land conservation: the nature and role of conservation contracts and conservation covenants

Management of private land for ecological outcomes has emerged as an important facet of biodiversity management and ecological restoration in Australia. Common law conservation contracts and conservation covenants are important tools within this framework of private land conservation. They can provide legal protections to biodiversity and natural assets on private land, as well as legal frameworks, in the form of obligations, to restoration programs. They can provide distinct qualities of binding obligation: fixed term or enduring. Conservation contracts and covenants need to be recognized as possessing both transactional and relational qualities, and these qualities should be considered and reflected in the design of agreements and in practices of conservation management and agreement‐making. Two design questions are considered in this article. Conservation agreements need to contend with dynamism in ecological and social realities and this may be accommodated in mechanisms for adjustment of obligations between or within agreements. Dispute management is a second field of practice and drafting requiring attention. Constructing disputes provisions that are adapted and appropriate to long‐term conservation actions and restoration initiatives is reflective of good faith principles and can include scope for graduated, independent, corrective, and fair arrangements, informed as necessary by expert input.     

Changing attitudes to nature conservation: The National Trust

The National Trust was founded in 1895 to preserve land and its associated flora, fauna and buildings. The Trust's land holding has since increased to over 220000 ha, of which almost one-third is of high nature conservation value. The protection provided by Trust ownership is particularly important for certain species. In recent years land management for nature conservation has been transferred from volunteers to professional staff and links with other conservation bodies have been developed. A special programme began in 1979 to survey the wildlife of Trust properties. Research is encouraged where it will benefit management. In some areas where traditional management has lapsed the Trust has invested considerable resources into restoring former regimes.     

The management of long term set-aside for nature conservation

Summary

Long term set-aside offers an opportunity to create new grasslands which may be visually appealing and valuable for wildlife. These grasslands, whilst not equalling the nature conservation value of old semi-natural grasslands, may have higher value for wildlife than the arable crops and grass leys which they replace. In this paper we compare the nature conservation value of vegetation established by either natural regeneration or by sowing a seed-mixture based on MG5 Cynosurus cristatus — Centaurea nigra grassland on set-aside at two sites in Scotland. The initial results suggest that sown vegetation is generally more botanically diverse than natural regeneration. Sheep grazing resulted in reduced botanical diversity in the sown plots and early cutting, with cuttings removed and aftermath grazing by cattle, resulted in the highest diversity estimates. However, some effects of management treatment were site specific.     

Changing attitudes to nature conservation: the botanical perspective

Concern to protect wild plants began possibly as early as the eighteenth century. The early-Victorian liberal tide brought the first protests at the over-collecting of rarities, but it seemingly needed the shock of the mid-century fern craze to swing botanical opinion to the cause of moderation. Protective legislation and the establishment of sanctuaries thereafter became the twin concerns, but progress was disappointing. Conservation and the creation of reserves, the fruit of ecological thinking, rose to be the dominant aim only after the Second World War. Developments since then have been rapid and substantial.     

Changing attitudes to nature conservation: the ornithological perspective

Early conservation centred on legislation to prevent species declines. It now includes habitat conseivation, through the establishment of reserves and land management practices in the wider countryside. This need for a broader approach is increasingly acknowledged and presents great opportunities.
Bird enthusiasts, for obvious reasons, have been in the forefront of conservation. This interest continues nationally and internationally.     

Changing attitudes to nature conservation: the entomological perspective

Unlike some other kinds of wildlife, insects have little attraction for the public. Insects tend to be a specialist interest, partly because the numbers of species are so large. This concentrates attention on insect identification and the impossibility of accomplishing this in the field except in a few cases. Some conflict between economic entomologists and conservationists has been apparent. Conservation organizations, including those specifically interested in insects, have influenced attitudes, as has the development of ecology, applied biogeography, and other scientific disciplines. Legislation for insect conservation is not satisfactory; not enough emphasis is laid on habitat conservation and the concepts of protected and endangered species are confused. Better cooperation and understanding between legislators and field entomologists are desirable. Species conservation in Britain emphasises butterflies. Many of the species thought to be threatened with extinction in 1925 are also of priority concern today. Better habitat management and re-establishments, both national and local, are important conservation activities. In the Third World, conservation is closely linked with utilization of the resource. This rational and sustainable use is in accordance with the World Conservation Strategy and benefits the rural poor in areas where attitudes to conservation in the developed world are inappropriate.     

两种自然保护区设计方法——数学建模和计算机模拟

传统的自然保护区设计方法是打分法和Gap分析法,这两种方法简单易行但可靠性不高;地理信息系统(GIS)在保护区设计领域的应用也为人熟悉.关注近年来快速发展而国内使用不多的两种方法——数学建模和计算机模拟.数学建模主要用来从一组备选地块中选择一部分组成自然保护区,包括线性和非线性模型,用启发式算法或最优化算法求解.启发式算法具有速度快、灵活等优点,但解通常不是最优的,不能保证稀缺资源的最优化利用.最优化算法运算效率低,变量较多比如数百时就可能遇到计算困难,但解是最优的.预计两种算法都将继续发展.计算机模拟主要用于保护区评价、功能区划分、预测特定环境比如空间特征和气候变化对物种的影响等,多用启发式算法,与其它软件结合把结果以图画显示出来.两种方法特别是计算机模拟均要求保护区设计者有较强的专业知识.讨论了两种方法面临的问题和新的研究方向,至少包括:1)基础数据依然需要完善;2)一些新的因素比如动态性和不确定性如何在模型中考虑并与其它因素结合;3)气候变化预景下模拟参数如何评估和调整;4)如何协调保护与发展的关系;5)方法的实际应用需要研究者与决策者之间建立交流机制;6)多领域专家和相关利益方应有机会参与保护区设计.     

Factors influencing the distribution of Azorean mountain vegetation: implications for nature conservation

In order to understand the main ecological factors that influence the distribution of mountain vegetation in Azores and to use it as a model for nature conservation, a study on Santa Bárbara Mountain on Terceira Island was performed. A multivariate analysis was done on vegetation data and the abiotic factors governing the vegetation pattern are discussed. The major factors contributing to the observed vegetation patterns are wind exposure, soil water saturation and historical human impacts. The vegetation analysis showed that Azorean Mountain habitats have a high variation of vegetation structure as a result of the habitat heterogeneity and the extreme ecological conditions. Using the co-dominant plants as indicator species, eco-zones are distinguished, characterized by the combination of different ecological–human factors which contribute to the distribution of specific types of natural vegetation communities. The studies of vegetation distribution give important information about the relation between vegetation and landscape that is essential for conservation, restoration proposals and landscape planning. Azores terrestrial Natura 2000 sites are largely dominated by mountain vegetation, therefore this work provides essential background data for the management plans of these sites.     

Spatial indicators for nature conservation from European to local scale

The paper presents an overview of the objectives and exemplary results of the FP 5 project “Spatial Indicators for European Nature Conservation” (SPIN). The SPIN project is focused on the development and testing of advanced classification methods and spatial indicators based on multisensor satellite data and GIS to accomplish monitoring and management tasks in the context of Natura 2000 and nature conservation. A representative selection of eight regional test areas covers a pan-European network and allows comparative investigations to provide accepted recommendations for regional and European nature conservation. The selected results of four case studies are presented and discussed. The range of work covers the production of regional and local habitat maps by object-oriented classification, a case-based reasoning method for change detection as a management support tool for planning and regulating local land use, the selection and application of structural indicators for the monitoring of Natura 2000 habitats and the downscaling and disaggregation of soil information. Results and the further implementation of presented methods are discussed in the conclusions.     

The mismeasure of islands: implications for biogeographical theory and the conservation of nature

The focus on place rather than space provides geography with a powerful raison d’être. As in human geography, the functional role of place is integral to the understanding of evolution, persistence and extinction of biotic taxa. This paper re‐examines concepts and biogeographical evidence from a geographical rather than ecological or evolutionary perspective. Functional areography provides convincing arguments for a postmodern deconstruction of major principles of the dynamic Equilibrium Theory of Island Biogeography (ETIB). Endemic oceanic island taxa are functionally insular as a result of long‐term island stability, confinement, isolation, and protection from continental invasion and disturbance. Most continental taxa persist in different, more complex and open spatial systems; their geographical place is therefore fundamentally distinct from the functional insularity of oceanic island taxa. This creates an insular‐continental polarity in biogeography that is currently not reflected in conservation theory. The focus on the biogeographical place leads to the development of the eigenplace concept defined as the functional spatial complex of existence. The application of still popular ETIB concepts in conservation biology is discouraged. The author calls for the integration of functional areography into modern conservation science.