Patterns and perceptions of climate change in a biodiversity conservation hotspot

Quantifying local people's perceptions to climate change, and their assessments of which changes matter, is fundamental to addressing the dual challenge of land conservation and poverty alleviation in densely populated tropical regions To develop appropriate policies and responses, it will be important not only to anticipate the nature of expected changes, but also how they are perceived, interpreted and adapted to by local residents. The Albertine Rift region in East Africa is one of the world's most threatened biodiversity hotspots due to dense smallholder agriculture, high levels of land and resource pressures, and habitat loss and conversion. Results of three separate household surveys conducted in the vicinity of Kibale National Park during the late 2000s indicate that farmers are concerned with variable precipitation. Many survey respondents reported that conditions are drier and rainfall timing is becoming less predictable. Analysis of daily rainfall data for the climate normal period 1981 to 2010 indicates that total rainfall both within and across seasons has not changed significantly, although the timing and transitions of seasons has been highly variable. Results of rainfall data analysis also indicate significant changes in the intra-seasonal rainfall distribution, including longer dry periods within rainy seasons, which may contribute to the perceived decrease in rainfall and can compromise food security. Our results highlight the need for fine-scale climate information to assist agro-ecological communities in developing effective adaptive management.     

Fine‐scale patterns of species and phylogenetic turnover in a global biodiversity hotspot: Implications for climate change vulnerability

Question: What is the relative importance of environmental and spatial factors for species compositional and phylogenetic turnover? Location: High‐rainfall zone of the Southwest Australian Floristic Region (SWAFR). Methods: Correlates of species compositional turnover were assessed using quadrat‐based floristic data, and establishing relationships with environmental and spatial factors using canonical correspondence analyses and Mantel tests. Between‐quadrat phylogenetic distance measures were computed and examined for correlations with environmental and spatial attributes. Processes structuring pa2t2terns of beta diversity were also evaluated within four broad floristic assemblages defined a priori. Results: Floristic diversity was strongly related to environmental attributes. A low significance of spatial variables on assemblage patterns suggested no evident effect of dispersal limitations. Species compositional turnover was especially high within the swamp and outcrop assemblage. Phylogenetic turnover was closely coupled to species compositional turnover, implying the occurrence of many locally endemic and phylogenetically relict taxa. Beta diversity patterns within assemblages were also significantly correlated with the local environment, and relevant correlates differed between floristic assemblage types. Conclusion: Phylogenetic diversity in the SWAFR high‐rainfall zone is clustered within edaphic microhabitats in a generally subdued landscape. A clustered rather than dispersed distribution of phylogenetic diversity increases the probability of significant plant diversity loss during periods of climate change. Climate change susceptibility of the region's flora is accordingly estimated to be high. We highlight the conservation significance of swamp and outcrops that are characterized by distinct hydrological properties and may provide refugial habitat for plant diversity during periods of moderate climate change.     

Challenging Wallacean and Linnean shortfalls: knowledge gradients and conservation planning in a biodiversity hotspot

Knowledge about biodiversity remains inadequate because most species living on Earth were still not formally described (the Linnean shortfall) and because geographical distributions of most species are poorly understood and usually contain many gaps (the Wallacean shortfall). In this paper, we developed models to infer the size and placement of geographical ranges of hypothetical non‐described species, based on the range size frequency distribution of anurans recently described in the Cerrado Biome, on the level of knowledge (number of inventories) and on surrogates for habitat suitability. The rationale for these models is as follow: (1) the range size frequency distribution of these species should be similar to the range‐restricted species, which have been most recently described in the Cerrado Biome; (2) the probability of new discoveries will increase in areas with low biodiversity knowledge, mainly in suitable areas, and (3) assuming range continuity, new species should occupy adjacent cells only if the level of knowledge is low enough to allow the existence of undiscovered species. We ran a model based on the number of inventories only, and two models combining effects of number of inventories and two different estimates of habitat suitability, for a total of 100 replicates each. Finally, we performed a complementary analysis using simulated annealing to solve the set‐covering problem for each simulation (i.e. finding the smallest number of cells so that all species are represented at least once), using extents of occurrence of 160 species (131 real anuran species plus 29 new simulated species). The revised reserve system that included information about unknown or poorly sampled taxa significantly shifted northwards, when compared to a system based on currently known species. This main result can be explained by the paucity of biodiversity data in this part of the biome, associated with its relatively high habitat suitability. As a precautionary measure, weighted by the inferred distribution data, the prioritization of a system of reserves in the north part of the biome appears to be defensible.     

Artificial ponds increase local dragonfly diversity in a global biodiversity hotspot

Human demands have led to an increased number of artificial ponds for irrigation of crops year-round. Certain insect species have established in these ponds, including dragonflies (Insecta: Odonata). There has been discussion around the value of artificial ponds for encouraging dragonfly diversity, with little work in biodiversity hotspots rich in rare and endemic species. We focus here on the Cape Floristic Region (CFR) global biodiversity hotspot, which has many endemic dragonfly species but has few natural ponds. Yet it has many artificial ponds mostly used for irrigation on local farms. This leads to an interesting question: to what extent do these artificial ponds provide habitats for dragonflies in this biologically rich, agriculturally fragmented landscape? To answer this, we recorded dragonfly species richness and abundances from 17 artificial ponds and 13 natural stream deposition pools as reference, in an area of the CFR where there are no local, natural, perennial ponds. Thirteen environmental and physical variables were recorded at the ponds and pools. We found that although ponds attracted no rare or threatened dragonfly species, they increased the area of occupancy and population sizes of many generalist species. These came from nearby natural deposition pools or from unknown sources elsewhere in the region, so providing refuges which otherwise would not be there. Interestingly, some CFR endemic species were also recorded at our artificial ponds. Overall dragonfly assemblages and those of true dragonflies (Anisoptera) and damselflies (Zygoptera) differed between artificial ponds and deposition pools, suggesting that artificial ponds are to some extent a novel ecosystem. Habitat type, elevation and temperature were significant drivers in structuring overall species assemblages. For the Anisoptera, riparian vegetation and level of landscape connectivity was important, while temperature was not. In contrast, Zygoptera species were most affected by river catchment, habitat type and temperature. In sum, these artificial ponds are stepping stone habitats across an increasingly fragmented landscape. Managing these ponds with perennial water, constant water levels, and maximum complexity and heterogeneity of habitats in terms of vegetation will conserve a wide range of generalists and some specialists.     

Conservation of invertebrate biodiversity on a mountain in a global biodiversity hotspot,Cape Floral Region

Mountains present particular challenges for biodiversity conservation. Table Mountain is a significant mountain in a global biodiversity hotspot, the Cape Floristic Region. It has outstanding angiosperm diversity and endemism. Yet, aerial and foliage invertebrates in the area have been poorly studied, despite their importance as pollinators and predators. These plant and invertebrate assemblages are under great pressure from human disturbance. Aerial and foliage invertebrates were sampled with a range of techniques. Sites were chosen to make comparisons between vegetation structure and type, elevation and aspect. In total, 216 species from 63 families and 14 orders were recorded. Vegetation structure (fynbos or forest) and elevation were the most important environmental variables for both aerial and foliage invertebrates. Peak time for aerial invertebrate abundance was spring and summer in the fynbos and spring in the forests, while the foliage invertebrates showed very little seasonal variation. There was no correlation between the diversity of aerial and foliage invertebrates. When these results were compared with others on epigaeic invertebrates, it became clear that epigaeic and aerial invertebrates are not correlated, while epigaeic and foliage invertebrates were only partially correlated, but not sufficiently so to consider one as a reliable estimator of the other. The management pointer from this study is that sites at all elevations are vital for the conservation of biodiversity on Table Mountain. Both the aerial and epigaeic/foliage invertebrate assemblages will need to be monitored separately to maintain the mountain’s conservation status.     

Integrating dark diversity and functional traits to enhance nature conservation of epiphytic lichens: a case study from Northern Italy

Biodiversity and Conservation - Mountains provide a timely opportunity to examine the potential effects of climate change on biodiversity. However, nature conservation in mountain areas have mostly...     

Managing ski resorts to improve biodiversity conservation: Australian reptiles as a case study

Alpine/subalpine environments are diverse systems that support many endemic species. Worldwide, these ecosystems are under threat from ski resort disturbances – even in areas broadly designated for biodiversity conservation. The effects of ski resorts on reptiles are largely unknown, making it difficult to implement effective conservation actions. Many ski resorts do not currently address the needs of reptiles, even those listed as threatened, in their management plans. If reptiles are to continue inhabiting ski resorts in Australia, strategies must be implemented that target their conservation. To begin to address this problem, we summarise current research investigating the effects of ski resorts on reptiles. Based on this information, we recommend strategies that will enhance the conservation of reptiles in areas affected by ski‐related disturbances. Suggested strategies include (i) restricting intensive disturbances to already highly modified areas of Australian ski resorts, (ii) avoiding disturbance of remaining native vegetation and structural complexity in ski resorts and (iii) re‐establishing structural complexity at highly modified sites through revegetation programmes, or through the cessation of mowing during peak reptile activity periods. While these strategies are designed to facilitate the persistence of reptiles in ski resorts, their long‐term success can only be evaluated by monitoring their effectiveness.     

Seed plant genera endemic to the Caribbean Island biodiversity hotspot: A review and a molecular phylogenetic perspective

The Caribbean Island Biodiversity Hotspot is composed primarily of the Bahamas and Greater and Lesser Antilles. A total of 180 genera (727 spp., ca. 9% of the species endemic to the Antilles) are restricted to this hotspot. Most of these genera are unispecific (51%), a pattern that is also found on other islands of the world. The majority of the endemic genera belong to the “Core Eudicot” clade, and they were published in two time periods (1854–1878 and 1904–1928). There are molecular phylogenies available for 63 of the endemic genera. However, phylogenetic reconstructions of only 21 genera are based on more than one independent DNA region and have well-supported clades and good taxonomic sampling. Six of the endemic genera form part of early-branching groups. We could not infer biogeographical conclusions from the molecular phylogenies of most of the endemic genera (43: 68%). There is an urgent need for (1) additional field studies to learn the conservation status of these genera, (2) effective protection of the habitats where the most endangered genera occur, and (3) additional biological and systematic studies of the least understood genera.     

Diversity patterns in savanna grassland communities: implications for conservation strategies in a biodiversity hotspot

For any conservation strategy to be effective, it must be preceded by knowledge of how diversity is configured within the area of interest. Here, data from 40 savanna-grassland sites were used to examine how plant biodiversity and species composition varied across spatial scales at the Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (KMTR), south India. Grasslands surveyed contained 278 plant species, and were characterized by high spatial variability in species association patterns. Fourteen distinct community assemblages were identified, organized primarily along an elevation gradient in the reserve. Overall, grasslands at KMTR were characterized by the dominance of a few, widespread species. The bulk of species richness, however, resulted from subordinate species with fairly restricted distributions. At low elevations, grasslands had high species richness and species composition differed greatly between sites. Mid-elevation grasslands contained about half the number of species present at low elevations, but sites were more similar in species composition. Richness of high-elevation grasslands was a third of that found at low elevations, but different sites harbored unique sets of species. Herbivore use of grasslands varied between communities and showed patterns that coincided with elevation. Herbivore use of low-elevation communities was high albeit variable, of mid-elevation sites was consistently low, and increased at higher elevations. Tall grass communities were the least utilized by herbivores at all elevations. Most species surveyed were rare and restricted in their distribution suggesting that conservation efforts must, perforce, encompass the entire reserve. However, differences in the structuring of diversity across elevations, and in herbivore use of grasslands, suggest that conservation efforts can be partitioned differentially across locations, specifically targeting low and high elevation grasslands in the reserve.     

Agricultural mosaics maintain significant flower and visiting insect biodiversity in a global hotspot

Agricultural expansion requires mitigation to conserve biodiversity and maintain functional interactions across the transformed mosaic. Conservation outside protected areas (PAs) means providing increased spatial opportunities for populations to survive over the long-term. Here we assess the capacity of agricultural mosaics for maintaining indigenous biodiversity against the benchmark levels in neighbouring PAs. We do this in three geographical areas in the major biodiversity hotspot, the Cape Floristic Region. We focus on two functionally related groups, indigenous flowers and their associated native insects, to assess the biodiversity value of certain components of agricultural mosaics. These components include agriculturally disturbed land, semi-transformed, disturbed land, and remnant patches of natural land, as well as adjacent PAs as reference sites. Overall, species richness across the agricultural mosaics outside PAs was similar to that within PAs for insects, although more variable for plants. Nevertheless, sites outside PAs still retained great diversity of flowering plants. Across the agricultural mosaic, sites shared 20–38 % of their insect species, and 12–28 % of plant species, indicating substantial species turnover. Each particular agricultural component retained species not sampled elsewhere in the landscape, indicating that habitats outside PAs can make a significant contribution to the compositional biodiversity of an area. Our findings are positive for biodiversity conservation across these agricultural mosaics, with these semi-natural components within the production landscape, in effect, extending the size of the PAs for many species. Conservation planning should recognize the value of such agricultural mosaics.     

From compositional to functional biodiversity metrics in bioassessment: A case study using stream macroinvertebrate communities

While compositional diversity is a common metric for assessing human impacts on aquatic communities, functional diversity is scarcely employed, though highly desirable from the perspective of the European Water Framework Directive. Using abundance data from 99 minimally disturbed sites (i.e., no or very weak anthropogenic impact) from a national survey, we studied the spatial variability of compositional and functional biodiversity metrics across a predefined ecoregional classification. Metrics of compositional diversity comprised taxonomic and EPT richness and Simpson diversity. Functional diversity metrics were based on Rao's Quadratic Entropy (RQE), which described the differences among benthic invertebrate genera in eleven biological traits (e.g., size, life cycle, reproduction types, feeding habits). Using generalized linear models we show that taxonomic richness may vary greatly across ecoregions, contrasting with Simpson diversity and functional metrics that varied weakly in response to natural environmental variability. Functional diversity metrics, because of their stability in response to natural environmental variability, may be useful tools for assessing human impairment to ecosystem function. We further tested the response of functional diversity metrics to a specific human impact (sewage) and demonstrated significant modifications of functional diversity downstream of sewage pollution. Further investigations are required to test the ability of functional diversity metrics to precisely and accurately indicate different types of human impacts.     

Best of both worlds: Combining ecological and social research to inform conservation decisions in a Neotropical biodiversity hotspot

Conservation decision is a challenging and risky task when it aims at prioritizing species or protected areas (PAs) to prevent extinction while ensuring fair treatment of all stakeholders. Better conservation decisions are those made upon a broader evidence base that includes both ecological and social considerations. However, in some of the most biodiverse ecosystems on Earth — tropical forests, for instance — multicriteria decision-making has been constrained by the following (i) ecological and social datasets available have been obtained in an independent, non-integrated manner, with social data typically more scarce than ecological ones, and (ii) capacity in social and/or interdisciplinary data analysis among decision-maker is limited. We describe a conservation prioritization exercise that combined findings from independent ecological and social research conducted in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest, and propose methods to integrate, analyze and visualize data. We found that the outcomes based on combined ecological and social research findings were, in some cases, different from those based on any of these lines of evidence alone. Indeed, the input from relatively basic social research significantly changed the outcomes of decision-making based on the results of ecological research. Results corroborate the importance and cost-effectiveness of broadening the interdisciplinary evidence base for conservation decision-making, even when social data is scarce and analytical capacity is limited.     

Integrating biodiversity distribution knowledge: toward a global map of life

Global knowledge about the spatial distribution of species is orders of magnitude coarser in resolution than other geographically-structured environmental datasets such as topography or land cover. Yet such knowledge is crucial in deciphering ecological and evolutionary processes and in managing global change. In this review, we propose a conceptual and cyber-infrastructure framework for refining species distributional knowledge that is novel in its ability to mobilize and integrate diverse types of data such that their collective strengths overcome individual weaknesses. The ultimate aim is a public, online, quality-vetted 'Map of Life' that for every species integrates and visualizes available distributional knowledge, while also facilitating user feedback and dynamic biodiversity analyses. First milestones toward such an infrastructure have now been implemented.     

系统发育多样性测度及其在生物多样性保护中的应用

生物多样性保护面临两个基本问题：如何确定生物多样性测度以及如何保护生物多样性。传统的生物多样性测度是以物种概念为基础的,用生态学和地理学方法确定各种生物多样性指数。其测度依赖于样方面积的大小,并且所有的物种在分类上同等对待。系统发育多样性测度基于系统发育和遗传学的理论和方法,能确定某一物种对类群多样性的贡献大小。该方法比较复杂,只有在类群的系统发育或遗传资料比较齐全时方能应用。本文认为,物种生存力途径和系统发育多样性测度相结合有助于确定物种和生态系统保护的优先秩序。     

Maximizing phylogenetic diversity in biodiversity conservation: Greedy solutions to the Noah's Ark problem

The Noah's Ark Problem (NAP) is a comprehensive cost-effectiveness methodology for biodiversity conservation that was introduced by Weitzman (1998) and utilizes the phylogenetic tree containing the taxa of interest to assess biodiversity. Given a set of taxa, each of which has a particular survival probability that can be increased at some cost, the NAP seeks to allocate limited funds to conserving these taxa so that the future expected biodiversity is maximized. Finding optimal solutions using this framework is a computationally difficult problem to which a simple and efficient "greedy" algorithm has been proposed in the literature and applied to conservation problems. We show that, although algorithms of this type cannot produce optimal solutions for the general NAP, there are two restricted scenarios of the NAP for which a greedy algorithm is guaranteed to produce optimal solutions. The first scenario requires the taxa to have equal conservation cost; the second scenario requires an ultrametric tree. The NAP assumes a linear relationship between the funding allocated to conservation of a taxon and the increased survival probability of that taxon. This relationship is briefly investigated and one variation is suggested that can also be solved using a greedy algorithm.     

Biodiversity responses to land‐use and restoration in a global biodiversity hotspot: Ant communities in Brazilian Cerrado

Given that land‐use change is the main cause of global biodiversity decline, there is widespread interest in adopting land‐use practices that maintain high levels of biodiversity, and in restoring degraded land that previously had high biodiversity value. In this study, we use ant taxonomic and functional diversity to examine the effects of different land uses (agriculture, pastoralism, silviculture and conservation) and restoration practices on Cerrado (Brazilian savanna) biodiversity. We also examine the extent to which ant diversity and composition can be explained by vegetation attributes that apply across the full land management spectrum. We surveyed vegetation attributes and ant communities in five replicate plots of each of 13 land‐use and restoration treatments, including two types of native vegetation as reference sites: cerrado sensu stricto and cerradão. Several land‐use and restoration treatments had comparable plot richness to that of the native reference habitats. Ant species and functional composition varied systematically among land‐use treatments following a gradient from open habitats such as agricultural fields to forested sites. Tree basal area and grass cover were the strongest predictors of ant species richness. Losses in ant diversity were higher in land‐use systems that transform vegetation structure. Among productive systems, therefore, uncleared pastures and old pine plantations had similar species composition to that occurring in cerrado sensu stricto. Restoration techniques currently applied to sites that were previously Cerrado have focused on returning tree cover, and have failed to restore ant communities typical of savanna. To improve restoration outcomes for Cerrado biodiversity, greater attention needs to be paid to the re‐establishment and maintenance of the grass layer, which requires frequent fire. At the broader scale, conservation planning in agricultural landscapes, should recognize the value of land‐use mosaics and the risks of homogenization.