The essential elements of science and management in coastal environmental managements

Coastal environmental management requires timely and appropriate policy, management and technological interventions to address a host of interrelated environmental problems arising from unplanned and unregulated coastal developments. These interventions can only be effective if they are based on sound scientific (including socioeconomic) information. Thus, science plays a significant role in the environmental management of coastal and marine areas. This paper highlights the essential components of environmental coastal management that require scientific interventions, particularly in providing the scientific basis for policy interventions, and preventive and/or mitigating measures. The integration and packaging of scientific information for management actions require an interdisciplinary effort to address identified management problems. Scientific research should respond to management needs and make contributions to the better understanding of ecosystems and their responses to human interventions. Scientific information urgently required for management includes an understanding of interactions in coastal resource systems, identification, evaluation and prioritization of management issues, management strategies and actions, and development of methodologies and tools for environmental management. Obstacles to management-oriented research have also been identified to include defective perception among scientists, defective communication between scientists and decision makers, intellectual and cultural arrogance, and inadequate technical and management capability at the local level. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Dynamics and management of some coastal dune woodlands near The Hague,The Netherlands

Changes are reported of Crataegus-Betula dune woodlands between 1950–1980 from Meijendel, a calcareous coastal dune system near the city of The Hague, The Netherlands, which is used as a water catchment area. It concerns both woodlands in degradation stage and, more common, woodlands on the increase. Changes were recorded with help of successive vegetation maps, air photos and permanent plot observations. Woodland increase usually occurs on places with groundwater at or near the surface, either because of natural circumstances or as a result of artificial groundwater recharge through infiltration as part of the water catchment activities. The management of both types of woodland is discussed.Nomenclature follows Heukels-van der Meijden (1983), Flora van Nederland, 20th ed. Wolters-Noordhoff, Groningen. Nomenclature of mosses follows Margadant & During (1982), Beknopte Flora van Nederlandse Blad- en Levermossen, Thieme, Zutphen.The authors have pleasure in thanking their colleagues from the Dune Water Works who supplied data on hydrology.     

The management of European estuaries: A comparison of the features,controls and management framework of the Tagus (Portugal) and Humber (England)

The paper describes the local, national, European and wider-area framework, statutes, and formal and voluntary mechanisms for managing European estuaries. These aspects are discussed in relation to two large and representative estuarine systems, the Tagus, Portugal, and the Humber, on the English North Sea coast As estuaries are sites of many activities and uses, most of which are encouraged or at least condoned, management has the role of preventing and resolving conflicts between those uses and users. Accepted uses of estuaries include the discharge and dumping of waste materials, fin and shell-fisheries, conservation, land reclamation, natural usage, abstraction by industry, and recreation. Estuarine management is now being carried out within the constraints of local and regional government planning, planning and activities of water pollution control bodies, fisheries control bodies, and navigation and port authorities The Tagus and Humber estuaries support all of the above activities and uses, and have controls within a European legislative framework but have differing histories of management and planning in order to resolve conflicts. In addition the Humber is subject to controls placed on North Sea areas. The paper discusses the relevant national and European legislation (Directives) and accepted practices for management. Furthermore, the paper discusses the formulation and practice of estuarine management plans as used by various bodies (nature conservation, water quality and regional authority). It is of particular note that the lessons from these two estuaries are relevant to many other European estuaries.     

The relative importance of light and nutrient limitation of phytoplankton growth: a simple index of coastal ecosystem sensitivity to nutrient enrichment

Anthropogenic nutrient enrichment of the coastal zone is now a well-established fact. However, there is still uncertainty about the mechanisms through which nutrient enrichment can disrupt biological communities and ecosystem processes in the coastal zone. For example, while some estuaries exhibit classic symptoms of acute eutrophication, including enhanced production of algal biomass, other nutrient-rich estuaries maintain low algal biomass and primary production. This implies that large differences exist among coastal ecosystems in the rates and patterns of nutrient assimilation and cycling. Part of this variability comes from differences among ecosystems in the other resource that can limit algal growth and production – the light energy required for photosynthesis. Complete understanding of the eutrophication process requires consideration of the interacting effects of light and nutrients, including the role of light availability as a regulator of the expression of eutrophication. A simple index of the relative strength of light and nutrient limitation of algal growth can be derived from models that describe growth rate as a function of these resources. This index can then be used as one diagnostic to classify the sensitivity of coastal ecosystems to the harmful effects of eutrophication. Here I illustrate the application of this diagnostic with light and nutrient measurements made in three California estuaries and two Dutch estuaries.     

The ecology of The Netherlands wetlands: characteristics,threats, prospects and perspectives for ecological research

Wetlands are among the worlds' most important, but also most threatened, environmental resources. Wetland losses have been in progress particularly from the industrial revolution onwards, because wetland functions could not successfully compete for space with other land uses. Wetlands became recently foci of conservation efforts because of the increased awareness of their importance in water management and wildlife conservation, and because of the diversity of their habitats. The Netherlands are relatively rich in wetlands: 16% of its' territory is regarded as internationally important wetland and 7% has been registered as such. The major Dutch wetland types are: coastal ecosystems, large riverine systems, base-rich freshwater systems, and nutrient-poor freshwater systems. Most threats to the Dutch wetlands are of man-made origin. They comprise: (1) Changes in hydrology leading to changed discharges, currents and desiccation; (2) Acidification; (3) Eutrophication; and (4) Toxification. Long-term threats are largely climate-change related, and concern temperature rise and the UV-B increase in irradiation. General conservation goals also apply to wetlands but Ramsar-registered wetlands have a special status. Conservation of the Dutch wetlands is difficult, because of the high population density of the country and its inherent threats. However, ecological targets and standards are increasingly set in national Policy Plans and international agreements. Rehabilitation and creation of wetlands is presently widely advocated, and sometimes realised. For ecological research, the sustainability of wetlands should get top priority. Such a research programme would focus on understanding the underlying ecological processes in natural and man-dominated wetland systems to prescribe conservation, rehabilitation and management strategies that would enhance the sustainability of these systems. Within this framework special attention should be directed to studies (1) At the ecosystem level of ecosystem parameters, of which natural oscillations and trends in time, and on which the impact of disturbances are quantified. Particularly these studies, in which often simulation models are used as tools for interpretation, can provide the basis for extrapolations in space and time; (2) On adaptation capacity and mechanisms of (groups of) species to extreme environmental conditions; (3) On (mutual) relationships between plants, animals and microorganisms (e.g. competition, grazing and mineralization); (4) On dispersion between small wetlands. For the contemporary quantitative assessment of the long-term effects of climate changes, the effects of temperature rise and increase in UV-B irradiation on individual species, communities and ecosystems should also be studied.     

The FSG Oil Pollution Research Unit–the 1980s and beyond

Research into the effects of oil contamination in estuaries and coastal waters has been the fundamental aim of OPRU since its inception in 1967. The development of the Unit's research programme has taken place in response to the needs of government and industry. In recent years it includes moves into the international field and away from solely oil and marine projects. The accumulated research and educational experience has wide applications in future environmental monitoring, management and protection.     

The impact of agricultural intensification and land-use change on the European arable flora

The impact of crop management and agricultural land use on the threat status of plants adapted to arable habitats was analysed using data from Red Lists of vascular plants assessed by national experts from 29 European countries. There was a positive relationship between national wheat yields and the numbers of rare, threatened or recently extinct arable plant species in each country. Variance in the relative proportions of species in different threat categories was significantly explained using a combination of fertilizer and herbicide use, with a greater percentage of the variance partitioned to fertilizers. Specialist species adapted to individual crops, such as flax, are among the most threatened. These species have declined across Europe in response to a reduction in the area grown for the crops on which they rely. The increased use of agro-chemicals, especially in central and northwestern Europe, has selected against a larger group of species adapted to habitats with intermediate fertility. There is an urgent need to implement successful conservation strategies to arrest the decline of this functionally distinct and increasingly threatened component of the European flora.     

Changes of traditional agrarian landscapes and their conservation implications: a case study of butterflies in Romania

Global biodiversity is decreasing as a result of human activities. In many parts of the world, this decrease is due to the destruction of natural habitats. The European perspective is different. Here, traditional agricultural landscapes developed into species-rich habitats. However, the European biodiversity heritage is strongly endangered. One of the countries where this biodiversity is best preserved is Romania. We analyse the possible changes in Romania's land-use patterns and their possible benefits and hazards with respect to biodiversity. As model group, we used butterflies, whose habitat requirements are well understood. We determined the ecological importance of different land-use types for the conservation of butterflies, underlining the special importance of Romania's semi-natural grasslands for nature conservation. We found that increasing modern agriculture and abandonment of less productive sites both affect biodiversity negatively — the former immediately and the latter after a lag phase of several years. These perspectives are discussed in the light of the integration of Romania into the European Union.     

The impact of science and technology on the civilization

The rapid increase of available scientific knowledge is largely due to the introduction of novel research strategies. The application of these strategies, both in fundamental and in translational scientific research, leads to bursts of technological innovations. In order to fulfill the justified public request for sustainability of technological innovations that contribute to the shaping of the future, increasing attention should be given to science-based technology and policy assessment. These requests are illustrated by benefit/risk evaluations of relevance for the use of genetic engineering as an efficient and effective research strategy. Expected benefits of a responsibly planned introduction of GM crops are outlined as a prospective example for the guiding theme “Biotechnology for sustainability of human society”.     

The impact of environmental degradation on reproduction of the black-chinned tilapia Sarotherodon melanotheron from various coastal marine,estuarine and freshwater habitats

There is growing evidence that climate change has greatly altered environmental conditions in many aquatic ecosystems over the last decades, leading to changes in fish distribution and life history traits. Recent works conducted in Senegalese and Gambian coastal marine, estuarine and freshwater ecosystems have shown important changes in the intensity, frequency and breeding timing of wild population of Sarotherodon melanotheron in response to changes in salinity regimes. In addition to salinity, this study investigates the potential influences of other environmental factors that have received less attention on the reproduction of S. melanotheron from three different aquatic ecosystems in Senegal. The results demonstrate that day-length and temperature affect sexual maturity in both males and females from Guiers Lake and Hann Bay, but no such effects were found in upstream of the Saloum Estuary, where the spawning activity seems to be under the synergetic control of rainfall and salinity that apparently predominate over all the other ambient factors. This study demonstrated for the first time that aside from photoperiod and temperature, rainfall also influences fish reproduction in Hann Bay probably through its effects on water quality. Furthermore, our results confirm previous findings that changes in salinity regimes resulting from seasonal variations in precipitation and evaporation are the ultimate causes of temporal changes in the reproductive activity of the species in this estuary.     

The distribution and environmental state of vegetated islands within human‐impacted European rivers

1. Vegetated islands within river corridors are pivotal landscape features and are among the first to disappear as a consequence of flow regulation and channelisation. However, how vegetated islands vary along human‐impacted rivers is poorly understood. 2. We carried out a detailed analysis of the contemporary distribution, diversity and environmental state of vegetated islands within 12 human‐impacted European rivers, using 75 Landsat 7 ETM+ satellite images (1999–2002), historical maps, DEM data and landscape metrics. We tested whether channel fragmentation, catchment land use and the environmental state of fringing floodplains determine the spatial patterns of the islands. We also analysed the historical change of islands within selected sections of the Upper Danube, Upper Rhine and Olt rivers. 3. We identified 2771 islands in the contemporary landscape, varying from 0.06 to 9828 ha. Islands covered up to 21% of the active channel area and contributed up to 32% of the total riparian ecotone length. Island density ranged from 0.06 islands per river‐km (River Sava) to 1.6 islands per river‐km (River Tagliamento). River regulation has led to a marked loss of island density: 94% in the Upper Danube, 93% in the Upper Rhine, and 69% in the Olt. The environmental state of the islands was significantly less altered by human activity than of their fringing floodplains; 93.4% of the vegetated islands exhibited a near‐natural state, while 86% of the fringing floodplains were expansively converted to agricultural and urban land uses. 4. Our results highlight the ubiquitous presence of vegetated islands, their sensitivity to river regulation and their pivotal role for the future restoration and management of river corridors.     

Making parks make a difference: poor alignment of policy,planning and management with protected-area impact,and ways forward

Policy and practice around protected areas are poorly aligned with the basic purpose of protection, which is to make a difference. The difference made by protected areas is their impact, defined in program evaluation as the outcomes arising from protection relative to the counterfactual of no protection or a different form of protection. Although impact evaluation of programs is well established in fields such as medicine, education and development aid, it is rare in nature conservation. We show that the present weak alignment with impact of policy targets and operational objectives for protected areas involves a great risk: targets and objectives can be achieved while making little difference to the conservation of biodiversity. We also review potential ways of increasing the difference made by protected areas, finding a poor evidence base for the use of planning and management ‘levers’ to better achieve impact. We propose a dual strategy for making protected areas more effective in their basic role of saving nature, outlining ways of developing targets and objectives focused on impact while also improving the evidence for effective planning and management.     

Integrating spatial data and shorebird nesting locations to predict the potential future impact of global warming on coastal habitats: A case study on Farasan Islands,Saudi Arabia

One of the expected effects of the global warming is changing coastal habitats by accelerating the rate of sea level rise. Coastal habitats support large number of marine and wetland species including shorebirds (plovers, sandpipers and allies). In this study, we investigate how coastal habitats may be impacted by sea level rise in the Farasan Islands, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. We use Kentish plover Charadrius alexandrinus – a common coastal breeding shorebird – as an ecological model species to predict the influence of sea level rise. We found that any rise of sea level is likely to inundate 11% of Kentish plover nests. In addition, 5% of the coastal areas of Farasan Islands, which support 26% of Kentish plover nests, will be flooded, if sea level rises by one metre. Our results are constrained by the availability of data on both elevation and bird populations. Therefore, we recommend follow-up studies to model the impacts of sea level rise using different elevation scenarios, and the establishment of a monitoring programme for breeding shorebirds and seabirds in Farasan Islands to assess the impact of climate change on their populations.     

The impact of zooplankton status on the management of Lake Kinneret (Israel)

Monthly averages of standing stock wet biomass of zooplankton in Lake Kinneret (Israel) varied between 11 and 76 g m^–2 during 1969–1981, with the exception of two months. Averaged contributions of different groups were: Cladocera 58%, Copepoda 35% and Rotifera 7%. Total standing crop wet biomass is highest during January–June, averages varied between 35 and 50 g m^–2, and decreases during summer–fall (23–36 g m^–2). The winter biomass of Cladocera fluctuated between 22 and 35 g m^–2 and dropped to a range of 9–23 g m^–2 in summer, whereas copepod biomass varied very little around an average of 18 g (ww) m^–2 with the exception of low values from April to June. The stock biomass of Rotifera is relatively high during winter floods season (December-March) whilst in summer it is very low.Young stages of fish in Lake Kinneret feed mostly on zooplankton and zoobenthic forms. The most abundant fish in the Kinneret ecosystem, Mirogrex terraesanctae terraesanctae, also feed on zooplankton at the adult stage throughout the year, and herbivorous fish consume zooplankton during the summer when lake plankton resources are limited.The summer ecosystem of Lake Kinneret is characterised as a steady state type, in which the impact of the zooplankton-chain is of great importance. Increase of predation pressure on zooplankton by fish can disequilibrate the balanced trophic relations existing between nannoplankton production and zooplankton grazing capacity. Such a situation can lead to organics accumulation as nannoplankton blooms, resulting in water quality deterioration. Management options aimed at preventing collapse of zooplankton populations are discussed.     

Pollen and macrofossil analyses of a unique peat remnant of the former extensive peat bogs in West Friesland,The Netherlands: a detailed record of coastal raised bog formation

Of the former extensive peat bog in West Friesland, only small, buried and often cutover remains are left, scattered over a wide region. The results of pollen and macrofossil analyses of the most complete peat profile found to date in this district is presented in this paper. The vegetation development during the final stage of marine sedimentation in the vicinity of the analysed profile is reconstructed in some detail, as well as the subsequent formation of the lower layers of the mire, including the ombrotrophic peat. Apart from these aspects, the study also contributes to our knowledge of the Holocene palaeogeography of the coastal region of the Netherlands.     

The effect of water level management on the soils and vegetation of two coastal Louisiana marshes

Wetland degradation and loss is the result of a combination of natural causes and anthropogenic activities and is a serious problem in coastal Louisiana, where approximately 80% of the total US coastal wetland loss since the 1930's has occurred. One method currently used to address this wetland loss problem is structural marsh management, which is the use of levees and water control structures to control hydroperiod. The effects of structural marsh management on two managed marshes in Southern Louisiana (Unit 4 of the Rockefeller Wildlife Refuge and the Fina LaTerre Mitigation Bank) were evaluated by comparing the soils and the dominant emergent marsh vegetation (Spartina patens) of the two managed marshes with those of two nearby unmanaged marshes. Soil redox potential, water depth, interstitial water sulfide concentration, salinity, NH₄-N and elemental concentrations of Na, K, Ca, Mg, P, Fe and Zn were measured four times during 1989 which was a drawdown year. Net and total CO₂ exchange rate, primary productivity, leaf area, stem density, and live, dead and total aboveground biomass were also measured. The managed marsh at Rockefeller had lower water levels, significantly less reduced surface and 15 cm deep soils and significantly lower interstitial sulfide concentrations and salinity levels. Na, K, Mg and Ca concentrations reflected the same pattern as salinity. Live aboveground biomass, primary productivity and leaf area were 3–4 times greater in the managed marsh. This indicates that marsh management improved soil conditions and provided an environment favorable to more vigorous plant growth. The management scheme at Fina LaTerre was also successful at maintaining lower water levels than in the adjacent unmanaged area. However, surface soils were more reduced and interstitial salinity higher, on average, in the managed marsh indicating generally poorer water circulation. Primary productivity was 50% less and stem density, leaf area, net CO₂ and total CO₂ exchange rates were significantly lower in the managed marsh, compared to the nearby reference marsh. Conditions in the managed marsh indicate that the management scheme was not successful at improving soil conditions when compared to those in the adjacent unmanaged marsh. This study indicates that structural marsh management is not the universal answer to problems faced by Louisiana's coastal wetlands, but may be of value in specific situations.     

The impact of accelerating land-use change on the N-Cycle of tropical aquatic ecosystems: Current conditions and projected changes

Published data and analyses from temperate and tropical aquatic systems are used to summarize knowledge about the potential impact of land-use alteration on the nitrogen biogeochemistry of tropical aquatic ecosystems, identify important patterns and recommend key needs for research. The tropical N-cycle is traced from pre-disturbance conditions through the phases of disturbance, highlighting major differences between tropical and temperate systems that might influence development strategies in the tropics. Analyses suggest that tropical freshwaters are more frequently N-limited than temperate zones, while tropical marine systems may show more frequent P limitation. These analyses indicate that disturbances to pristine tropical lands will lead to greatly increased primary production in freshwaters and large changes in tropical freshwater communities. Increased freshwater nutrient flux will also lead to an expansion of the high production, N- and light-limited zones around river deltas, a switch from P- to N-limitation in calcareous marine systems, with large changes in the community composition of fragile mangrove and reef systems. Key information gaps are highlighted, including data on mechanisms of nutrient transport and atmospheric deposition in the tropics, nutrient and material retention capacities of tropical impoundments, and N/P coupling and stoichiometric impacts of nutrient supplies on tropical aquatic communities. The current base of biogeochemical data suggests that alterations in the N-cycle will have greater impacts on tropical aquatic ecosystems than those already observed in the temperate zone.     

The effect of isolation and history on colonization patterns of plant species in secondary woodland

Colonization success of woodland originating after 1850 was determined for seventeen forest plant species having different dispersal strategies. Colonization rate of the studied endo-and exozoochorous species apparently was considerable higher than that of species having short distance dispersal like myrmecochores and species lacking dispersal mechanisms. The occurrence of eight species in this young forest habitat was related to the distance to the nearest source patch (DNS), as well as to the age of the young patches and to their former land use. DNS calculated to old, existent and occupied source patches affected most analysed species. Only Ilex aquifolium L. had a significant higher occurrence in woodland originating before 1916 than in those originating after 1916. Former land use showed significant effects for three species. Although colonization rate and effects of studied parameters on occurrence were different for the studied species, no clear differences were found between different dispersal groups. The consequences of these results for the understanding of colonization processes of the species studied is discussed.