Distribution and conservation significance of endemic species of flowering plants in Peru

Using the data published in the Catalogue of the Flowering Plants and Gymnosperms of Peru, we analyzed the elevational distributions of 5323 species reported as endemics from that country as a whole, for 10 families with the highest number of endemic taxa in Peru, and the distribution patterns of these species according to life form. We calculated the density of endemism (number of endemic species divided by area × 1000) and absolute number of endemic species among life forms and families, along an elevational gradient. Overall densities of endemics were 10–15 times higher at mid-elevation (2000–3500 m) than in the Amazonian lowlands (0–500 m). Absolute numbers of endemics peaked at 1500–3000 m for herbs, shrubs, and epiphytes, while trees, vines, and lianas showed maxima in the lowlands (0–500 m); yet densities of endemics for all life forms peaked at 1500–3000 m. Among the 10 families with the highest number of endemics, densities of endemics peaked at mid- to high elevation (1500–4500 m), but showed much disparity in the elevational distribution of absolute numbers of endemic species. Finally, the percentage of endemic species to total species is highest for herbs, shrubs, and epiphytes. Given that less than 10% of the land area for each of the montane zones (2000–4500 m) is protected compared to 13.5–29.9% in the lower elevations (0–1000 m), we recommend that priority be given to increasing the size of protected areas at mid- to high altitude in the Andean slopes to grant further protection in zones with the highest density of endemics. We also recommend that more emphasis be given to collecting and studying non-trees, since most endemic species belong to that class.     

Patterns of plant species endemism in Ecuador

Distribution patterns of plant species endemic to Ecuador and adjacent parts of southern Colombia and northern Peru are analysed on the basis of information in the Flora of Ecuador. A total of 827 restricted-range species were found, many of which are known from extremely small areas, often only one or a few localities. A total of 27% of the species treated in the Flora of Ecuador are endemic to that country. The overall proportion of endemic and restricted-range species is greater in the Andes than in the lowland areas on either side of these mountains; particularly the southern Andes appears to be very rich in endemic species. Spatial analysis of distribution data results in the recognition of 15 floristic elements and 18 geographical endemism regions in Ecuador, the characteristics of which are discussed. Comparison with distribution patterns of restricted-range bird species show a general correspondence, with the main difference that birds tend to be more widely distributed than plants along the Andes. Comparison of the results with the location of national parks and other protected areas shows that the endemic floras in the northern and eastern parts of the country are much better protected than those of the southern and western parts.     

Ecuadorian novelties in Blakea and Topobea (Melastomataceae)

Three new species of Melastomataceae (Blakeeae) are described:Blakea subpanduriformis, Topobea adscendens, andT. bullata. All are climbers endemic to the montane forests of the eastern slopes of the Andes in southern Ecuador. In this region, 35% of the Ecuadorian species and 41% of the endemic Ecuadorian species of Melastomataceae occur. The discovery of these three new endemic species underlines the diversity of Melastomataceae occurring on the slopes of the Andes in southeastern Ecuador.     

Landscape diversity patterns and endemism of Araceae in Ecuador

Araceae is one of the largest herb families in tropical America, but its patterns of diversity and endemism are poorly known. We used predictive distribution modelling in GIS to study Araceae richness on a landscape scale in Ecuador. Modelling was based on georeferenced herbarium collections with humidity and mean annual temperature as climatic variables. Variation partitioning using multiple regression showed that humidity and altitude were main factors in explaining Araceae diversity patterns. Endemism was less well explained by present climatic factors. Unlike common diversity patterns of herbs or epiphytes, Araceae richness was highest in the eastern (Amazon) lowland rain forest with a secondary centre on the Andean foothills of northwestern Ecuador. The peak in endemism was on the western slopes of the Andes, corresponding to areas that have been severely affected by human activities and deforestation. Eastern lowland (Amazonian) forests were poor in endemic Araceae.     

Using species distributions models for designing conservation strategies of Tropical Andean biodiversity under climate change

Biodiversity in the Tropical Andes is under continuous threat from anthropogenic activities. Projected changes in climate will likely exacerbate this situation. Using species distribution models, we assess possible future changes in the diversity and climatic niche size of an unprecedented number of species for the region. We modeled a broad range of taxa (11,012 species of birds and vascular plants), including both endemic and widespread species and provide a comprehensive estimation of climate change impacts on the Andes. We find that if no dispersal is assumed, by 2050s, more than 50% of the species studied are projected to undergo reductions of at least 45% in their climatic niche, whilst 10% of species could be extinct. Even assuming unlimited dispersal, most of the Andean endemics (comprising ∼5% of our dataset) would become severely threatened (>50% climatic niche loss). While some areas appear to be climatically stable (e.g. Pichincha and Imbabura in Ecuador; and Nariño, Cauca, Valle del Cauca and Putumayo in Colombia) and hence depict little diversity loss and/or potential species gains, major negative impacts were also observed. Tropical high Andean grasslands (páramos and punas) and evergreen montane forests, two key ecosystems for the provision of environmental services in the region, are projected to experience negative changes in species richness and high rates of species turnover. Adapting to these impacts would require a landscape-network based approach to conservation, including protected areas, their buffer zones and corridors. A central aspect of such network is the implementation of an integrated landscape management approach based on sustainable management and restoration practices covering wider areas than currently contemplated.     

Avian diversity and endemism in Namibia: patterns from the Southern African Bird Atlas Project

Namibia supports a highly diverse avifauna of 644 species, including over 90 species endemic to the southern African subregion and 13 species endemic to the country. Patterns of species diversity in relation to protected areas and habitat types were analysed using data from the Southern African Bird Atlas Project. A modified Shannon index appropriate for atlas data was used to derive an index of diversity for all species, wetland, terrestrial, threatened, and regional endemic species. Species richness for Namibian endemics was mapped. Overall species diversity is highest in the northeast of Namibia where wetland and riparian habitats coincide. Both wetland and terrestrial species show highest diversity in this area. The greatest diversity of southern African endemics falls within the Savanna-Karoo systems. Several key areas are identified for red data species, including the Caprivi Strip, Kunene and Orange Rivers, coastal wetlands and ephemeral river mouths and pans. This highlights the pressures operating on wetland and riparian habitats in arid environments. Concentrations of Namibian endemics are found in the northwestern (Kaoko) escarpment of the country. Although much of the area of high diversity of wetland, terrestrial and red data species falls within protected areas, national and regional endemics are poorly represented within national parks.     

Biogeographical analysis of rodent endemism and distributional congruence in the southern–central Andes (north‐western Argentina)

The recognition of areas of endemism (AEs) is important for conservation biology and biogeographical regionalization. Our objective was to quantitatively identify AEs and distributional congruence patterns of native rodents at the tropical/temperate transition in the central Andes. We analysed 6200 geo‐referenced distributional records of 80 species in north‐western Argentina using NDM/VNDM software. We found 20 AEs defined by 22 endemic species (27% of the total rodent fauna) and 34 patterns of distributional congruence in non‐endemic rodents. Geographical range congruence follows two main patterns running parallel along the Andes. One is related to the humid eastern slopes of the Andes (Argentinean Yungas forest) and the other to the high Andes (Argentinean Puna plateau). Endemism was mainly restricted to the southernmost part of the Yungas forest and adjacent dryer valleys (Monte desert). Species diversity was highest in the northern sector of the Argentinean Yungas forest, where several species reach their southern distributional range. This incongruence among hotspots of diversity and endemism has also been also noted in diversity studies at continental and global scales. Our results provide a starting point for conservation planning in the southernmost Central Andes, which combines the taper of tropical diversity and range‐restricted species endemic to the tropical–temperate transition. © 2014 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2014, 112 , 163–179.     

Diversity and biogeography of vascular epiphytes in Western Amazonia, Yasuní, Ecuador

Aim Although vascular epiphytes are important components of species richness and complexity of Neotropical forests, vascular epiphytes are under‐represented in large scale biogeographical analyses. We studied the diversity, biogeography and floristic relationships of the epiphytic flora of the Yasuní region (Western Amazonia) in a Neotropical context, with special emphasis on the influence of the Andean flora on floristic composition and diversity of surrounding lowland forests. Location Western Amazonian lowland rainforest, Tiputini Biodiversity Station (0°38′ S 76°09′ W, 230 m a.s.l., 650 ha), Yasuní National Park, Ecuador. Methods We compared the vascular epiphyte flora of Yasuní with 16 published Neotropical epiphyte inventories. Secondly, based on a floristic database with records of more than 70,000 specimens of vascular epiphytes from the Neotropics the elevational composition of eight selected inventories was analysed in detail. Results The vascular epiphyte flora of Yasuní is characterized by a very high species richness (313 spp.). A moderate portion of species is endemic to the Upper Napo region (c. 10%). However, this figure is much higher than previous analyses primarily based on woody species suggested. Geographical ranges of these species match with a proposed Pleistocene forest refuge. Compared with Northern and Central Amazonian sites, Western Amazonian epiphyte communities are characterized by a higher portion of montane and submontane species. Species richness of vascular epiphytes at the sites was correlated with the amount of rainfall, which is negatively correlated with the number of dry months. Main conclusion Recent and historic patterns of rainfall are the driving forces behind diversity and floristic composition of vascular epiphytes in Western Amazonia: high annual rainfall in combination with low seasonality provides suitable conditions to harbour high species richness. The proximity to the Andes, the most important centre of speciation for most Neotropical epiphytic taxa, in combination with the climatic setting has allowed a continuous supply of species richness to the region. At least for epiphytes, the borderline between the Andean and Amazonian flora is much hazier than previously thought. Moreover, the comparatively moist climate in Western Amazonia during the Pleistocene has probably led to fewer extinctions and/or more speciation than in more affected surrounding lowlands.     

Axinaea fernando‐cabiesii and A. reginae spp. nov. (Melastomataceae) from upper Amazonia of Peru,with notes on the conservation status of A. flava

Two new Peruvian species of Axinaea (Melastomataceae) are described. Axinaea francisco‐cabiesii and Axinaea reginae are small trees, endemic to the cloud forest zone in the northern Andean region of Peru. The border region of Peru and Ecuador is one of the Earth's most biologically diverse areas. The Huancabamba depression of the central Andean Cordillera allows for dispersal of flora and fauna between the Amazon Basin and the Pacific lowlands. Additionally, the region is characterized by a fast transition between the humid mountain forests of the northern Andes and the dry, deciduous forests of the northern Peruvian lowlands, making it a hotspot for endemic species. Field observations indicate that both new Axinaea species have small population sizes, occurring in a very restricted habitat. Axinaea flava was described only a few years ago from the cloud forest – paramo transition zone in southernmost Ecuador between 3400 and 3800 m a.s.l. This small tree is the only yellow‐flowered species of the genus. The original assessment counted about 100 individuals. In the last decade, livestock grazing and widespread burning have intensified in the region, and a new assessment yielded only 10 individuals, four of which were damaged by fire. This puts the species in danger of extinction. We encourage search for other populations in southern Ecuador and northern Peru.     

Testing historical explanations for gradients in species richness in heliconiine butterflies of tropical America

We compiled a large database of 58 059 point locality records for 70 species and 434 subspecies of heliconiine butterflies and used these data to test evolutionary hypotheses for their diversification. To study geographical patterns of diversity and contact zones, we mapped: (1) species richness; (2) mean molecular phylogenetic terminal branch length; (3) subspecies richness and the proportion of specimens that were subspecific hybrids, and (4) museum sampling effort. Heliconiine species richness is high throughout the Amazon region and peaks near the equator in the foothills and middle elevations of the eastern Andes. Mean phylogenetic terminal branch length is lowest in the eastern Andes and tends to be low in species‐rich areas. By contrast, areas of high subspecies richness, where subspecies overlap in range and/or hybridize, are concentrated along the course of the Amazon River, with the eastern Andes slopes and foothills relatively depauperate in terms of local intraspecific phenotypic diversity. Spatial gradients in heliconiine species richness in the Neotropics are consistent with the hypothesis that species richness gradients are driven at least in part by variation in speciation and/or extinction rates, resulting in observed gradients in mean phylogenetic branch length, rather than via evolutionary age or niche conservatism alone. The data obtained in the present study, coupled with individual case studies of recently evolved Heliconius species, suggest that the radiation of heliconiine butterflies occurred predominantly on the eastern slopes of the Andes in Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru, as well as in the upper/middle Amazon basin. © 2012 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2012, 105 , 479–497.     

Hagenbachia, a misplaced genus of New World Liliaceae

Hagenbachia , which until recently was included in Haemodoraceae, belongs in Asphodeleae in Liliaceae sensu lato or Anthericaceae sensu stricto. Hagenbachia and its putative relatives Echeandia, Anthericum , and Chlorophytum are characterized by anatropous ovules, curved or angled embryos, and nonarillate seeds, which indicate a position in Anthericaceae, as well as a black, colliculose seed coat. Hagenbachia includes five species of Central and South America; one, H. columbiana , is described here. The available data suggest the species are ecologically as well as geographically isolated. There are two broad leaved species. One is endemic to the lowlands of eastern Brazil and the second is found at middle elevations in Costa Rica and Panama and on the eastern slope of the Andes in Ecuador. Of the three narrow leaved species, one is endemic to the Cordillera Central in Columbia, a second is endemic to eastern Paraguay and southeastern Bolivia and the third occurs from eastern Bolivia northeast to east-central Brazil.     

The diversity of cloud forest birds on the eastern and western slopes of the Ecuadorian Andes: a latitudinal and comparative analysis with implications for conservation

We studied the avifaunas of five cloud forest localities at 3000–3350 mas1 on the eastern slope of the Andes of Ecuador A method standardised for area, altitude and effort was the basis for obtaining data on species richness and abundances Richness and abundances (diversity) were unchanged along the limned latitudinal gradient (530 km) studied, whereas there was a considerable turnover in community structure between localities This result has important implications for ranking conservation priorities the total community richness and the dominance/evenness component of diversity does not provide a basis for making priorities along this limited latitudinal gradient Instead, species compositions and species referred to threatened categories (e g, endemics, restricted–range, IUCN threatened/near–threatened, CITES) will be the most meaningful data for making priorities for conservation We compared our results with similar results from the Andean western slope of Ecuador, obtained with the same method and standardised for time of the year The number of species was significantly higher on the eastern slope than on the western slope, a characteristic that can be explained from differences in extension of adjacent source areas and geohistory However, because the species compositions on the two slopes are rather different, it is not recommended to use the difference in richness to rank conservation priorities Abundances were quite similar on both sides of the Andes Contrary to the general belief, the montane avifaunas investigated have tropical and not temperate species richness which agrees with the tropical clutch sizes found among montane birds The avian richness found on the eastern slope of Ecuador near the Equator is definitely among the highest m the world for this altitude     

Termites (Isoptera: Kalotermitidae,Rhinotermitidae, Termitidae) of Ecuador

Termites are an abundant and diverse group in the Neotropics with about 500 species representing 83 genera. The paucity of the termite fauna recorded from Ecuador is due, in part, to a lack of deliberate surveys. We revise the termite fauna of Ecuador and raise the number of species from 25 species to 72 based on our recent termite surveys. Of the 72 species, 18 could not be conclusively identified and are likely new species. Given the limited area that has been covered in surveys of the Ecuadorian termite fauna, there are undoubtedly many more species to be recorded for Ecuador, primarily in the eastern lowland areas, cloud forests on both the eastern and western slopes of the Andes, and the Amazonian lowland forests.     

Patterns of endemism of the eastern North American cave fauna

Aim Over 250 species of obligate terrestrial cave‐dwelling animals (troglobionts) are known from single caves in the eastern United States. We investigate their geographical distribution, especially in relation to other troglobionts. We relate these patterns to taxonomic group, opportunities for dispersal and geographical location. Location Caves of the United States east of the Mississippi River. Methods We associated over 3000 records of more than 450 troglobiotic species and subspecies with hexagons of 1000, 5000 and 10,000 km² in size. We calculated Moran's I, black–white joins and cubic regression of endemics on non‐endemics at all three spatial scales. For 5000 km² hexagons, we modelled the spatial autocorrelation of the residuals of the cubic regression of endemics on non‐endemics. Results Differences among orders in percentage single‐cave endemism were not significant, except for Pseudoscorpionida, which was higher (69%) than any other order. At all three scales, Moran's I and black–white joins were significant, indicating a clumped distribution of both single‐cave endemics and other troglobionts. Spatial patterns were similar at all three scales and Moran's I was highest at 5000 km². The cubic fit of endemics to non‐endemics was consistently better, with less systematic error or residuals, than were linear or quadratic models. Residuals showed a significant geographical pattern with excess endemics in more southerly locations. Main conclusions There was both a non‐spatial and spatial component to the pattern of single‐cave endemism. The non‐spatial component was the association of high levels of single‐cave endemism with areas of high diversity of non‐endemics. It may be that both are high because of high secondary productivity. Spatially, single‐cave endemism is high in central rather than peripheral areas and in the southern part of the range. It is not higher in areas of more dissected limestone, which would reduce migration rates; if anything endemism is lower. Regional spatial effects are important, indicating that cave communities cannot be understood (or protected) in isolation.     

Diversity and endemism of woody plant species in the Equatorial Pacific seasonally dry forests

The biodiversity hotspot of the Equatorial Pacific region in western Ecuador and northwestern Peru comprises the most extensive seasonally dry forest formations west of the Andes. Based on a recently assembled checklist of the woody plants occurring in this region, we analysed their geographical and altitudinal distribution patterns. The montane seasonally dry forest region (at an altitude between 1,000 and 1,100 m, and the smallest in terms of area) was outstanding in terms of total species richness and number of endemics. The extensive seasonally dry forest formations in the Ecuadorean and Peruvian lowlands and hills (i.e., forests below 500 m altitude) were comparatively much more species poor. It is remarkable though, that there were so many fewer collections in the Peruvian departments and Ecuadorean provinces with substantial mountainous areas, such as Cajamarca and Loja, respectively, indicating that these places have a potentially higher number of species. We estimate that some form of protected area (at country, state or private level) is currently conserving only 5% of the approximately 55,000 km² of remaining SDF in the region, and many of these areas protect vegetation at altitudes below 500 m altitude. In contrast, the more diverse seasonally dry forests in mountainous areas remain little protected.     

The effects of climate change on a mega‐diverse country: predicted shifts in mammalian species richness and turnover in continental Ecuador

Ecuador has some of the greatest biodiversity in the world, sheltering global biodiversity hotspots in lowland and mountain regions. Climate change will likely have a major effect on these regions, but the consequences for faunal diversity and conservation remain unclear. To address this issue, we used an ensemble of eight species distribution models to predict future shifts and identify areas of high changes in species richness and species turnover for 201 mammals. We projected the distributions using two different climate change scenarios at the 2050 horizon and contrasted two extreme dispersal scenarios (no dispersal vs. full dispersal). Our results showed extended distributional shifts all over the country. For most groups, our results predicted that the current diversity of mammals in Ecuador would decrease significantly under all climate change scenarios and dispersal assumptions. The Northern Andes and the Amazonian region would remain diversity hotspots but with a significant decrease in the number of species. All predictions, including the most conservative scenarios in terms of dispersal and climate change, predicted major changes in the distribution of mammalian species diversity in Ecuador. Primates might be the most severely affected because they would have fewer suitable areas, compared with other mammals. Our work emphasizes the need for sound conservation strategies in Ecuador to mitigate the effects of climate change     

Revision of Ticorea Aubl. (Rutaceae, Galipeinae)

Ticorea comprises five species, which occur in the Guianas, throughout the Amazonian basin, and on the lower eastern slopes of the Andes in Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. Two of the five are described here as new: T. diandra, from eastern Ecuador and adjacent Peru, and T. froesii, from Maranhão and Pará, Brazil.     

Habitat change and trade explain the bird assemblage from the La Chimba archaeological site in the northeastern Andes of Ecuador

The nature of tree‐line habitats in the Andes has long been a contentious topic in the ecological literature. Palynological studies suggest that a combination of anthropogenic and natural processes throughout the Holocene contributed to its present form and species composition. This is the first study to use zooarchaeological evidence to reconstruct possible prehistoric changes in these alpine habitats. I analysed the remains of birds from the La Chimba archaeological site in northern Ecuador to assess changes in the bird tree‐line community over three distinct phases (Early, 2640–2390 year BP; Middle, 2390–1994 year BP; Late, 1994–1700 year BP) of this prehistoric settlement. The elevation of this site (3200 m) places it near a steep elevational gradient in vegetation, with the modern tree‐line here at 3500–3600 m. Therefore, non‐local specimens of birds from the lowlands would hint at long‐distance trade. The composition of birds changes through time: species associated with high montane forest and shrubby páramos decrease and species from dry or open montane habitats increase. This trend is dominated by the decrease of Curve‐billed Tinamous Nothoprocta curvirostris (current elevational range 3000–3900 m) and a corresponding increase of specimens of Andean Tinamous Nothoprocta pentlandii (current elevational range 1000–2300 m). The large number of Andean Tinamous is surprising given that presently it occurs no closer than 300 km to the south of the La Chimba site. Overall, 18 of the 43 species of birds identified from La Chimba are likely to be the result of trade. This includes species from the eastern and western lowlands of Ecuador and one possible long‐distance transport from Peru. Prehistoric trade of birds and bird parts was probably common, and prehistoric anthropogenic landscape change and trade in birds should be considered as alternative explanations for species with disjunct populations in and across the Andes.     

Maximizing species conservation in continental Ecuador: a case of systematic conservation planning for biodiverse regions

Ecuador has the largest number of species by area worldwide, but also a low representation of species within its protected areas. Here, we applied systematic conservation planning to identify potential areas for conservation in continental Ecuador, with the aim of increasing the representation of terrestrial species diversity in the protected area network. We selected 809 terrestrial species (amphibians, birds, mammals, and plants), for which distributions were estimated via species distribution models (SDMs), using Maxent. For each species we established conservation goals based on conservation priorities, and estimated new potential protected areas using Marxan conservation planning software. For each selected area, we determined their conservation priority and feasibility of establishment, two important aspects in the decision-making processes. We found that according to our conservation goals, the current protected area network contains large conservation gaps. Potential areas for conservation almost double the surface area of currently protected areas. Most of the newly proposed areas are located in the Coast, a region with large conservation gaps and irreversible changes in land use. The most feasible areas for conservation were found in the Amazon and Andes regions, which encompass more undisturbed habitats, and already harbor most of the current reserves. Our study allows defining a viable strategy for preserving Ecuador''s biodiversity, by combining SDMs, GIS-based decision-support software, and priority and feasibility assessments of the selected areas. This approach is useful for complementing protected area networks in countries with great biodiversity, insufficient biological information, and limited resources for conservation.     

Multiplicity in palm uses by the Huaorani of Amazonian Ecuador

An ethnobotanical study of the palms used by the Huaorani in the Yasuní National Park and Huaorani Ethnic Reserve in Amazonian Ecuador was carried out. In this inventory, 37 palm species were found; all were used by the Huaoranis. One hundred and ninety-one different uses were recorded in eight ethnobotanical categories. Most species (64.9%) were used for house construction and human food. More than half of the species were used for domestic utensils (59.4%) and hunting and fishing implements (54%). A comparison is made between these data and past studies for the other six indigenous communities from Amazonian Ecuador. This paper shows the highest diversity of useful palm species and the highest number of different uses ever recorded for an indigenous group in Amazonian Ecuador. The data combine quantitative and qualitative approaches.  © 2004 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 2004, 144 , 149–159.