Phylogenetic relationships of the African bush-shrikes and helmet-shrikes (Passeriformes: Malaconotidae)

The African bush-shrikes and helmet-shrikes (Malaconotidae sensu [A Complete Checklist of the Birds of the World, third ed., Helm Editions, London, 2003]) include 10 genera and 52 species of predatory passerine birds for which monophyly, sister-group, and inter-generic relationships are disputed. To resolve their relationships, we analyzed 2313 bp of sequence data obtained from two nuclear introns (myoglobin intron-2, beta-fibrinogen intron-5) and a mitochondrial protein-coding gene (ND2) using parsimony, maximum likelihood, and Bayesian inference. A strongly supported clade that included representatives of the Malaconotidae, Platysteiridae, and Vangidae was found in all analyses. Three main groups emerged within this clade but relationships between these three groups were always poorly supported. The first group included the helmet-shrikes (Prionops), flycatcher-shrikes (Bias and Megabyas), and vangas (Cyanolanius and Pseudobias), currently placed in the families Malaconotidae, Platysteiridae, and Vangidae, respectively. The second group consisted of four Platysteiridae genera (Lanioturdus, Batis, Platysteira, and Dyaphorophyia), with the remaining Malaconotidae genera ('core malaconotids') forming the last group. Two main clades emerged within the 'core malaconotids,' with the position of the genus Nilaus being variable. The first clade included Malaconotus, Dryoscopus, Bocagia, and Tchagra and the second Chlorophoneus, Laniarius, Rhodophoneus, and Telophorus. Monophyly of the genus Chlorophoneus was never recovered, a result that is consistent with morphological data.     

Extreme Endemic Radiation of the Malagasy Vangas (Aves: Passeriformes)

Phylogenetic relationships of the family Vangidae and representatives of several other passeriform families were inferred from 882 base positions of mitochondrial DNA sequences of 12S and 16S rRNA genes. Results indicated the monophyly of the Vangidae, which includes the genus Tylas, hitherto often placed in the family Pycnonotidae. Our results also revealed the Malagasy endemic Newtonia, a genus never previously assigned to the Vangidae, to be a member of this family. These results suggest the occurrence of an extensive in situ radiation of this family within Madagascar, and that the extant high diversity of this family is not the result of multiple colonizations from outside. The extremely high morphological and ecological diversification of the family seems to have been enhanced through the use and ultimate occupancy of vacant niches in this island. Received: 8 September 2000 / Accepted: 13 February 2001     

Phylogeny and disjunct distribution: evolution of Saintpaulia (Gesneriaceae).

The molecular phylogeny of African violets (Saintpaulia H. Wendl.), based on ribosomal DNA internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences, follows the disjunct biogeography of the genus. Sequence analysis by parsimony of 19 accessions, representing 17 currently recognized Saintpaulia species, resulted in four trees of 182 steps. The first major division is between S. goetzeana, from the Uluguru Mts, Tanzania, and the rest of the genus. The basal position of S. goetzeana, and its putative primitive characters, may indicate an Uluguru origin for Saintpaulia and subsequent colonization of the more northerly mountains. Of the remainder, S. teitensis, from the Teita Hills of Kenya, is sister taxon to the other species (which occur mainly in the Usambara Mts of north-east Tanzania). A group of nine Usambaran species that we call the ''ionantha complex'' show minimal ITS genetic differentiation and are also taxonomically critical. Species diversity in the Usambara Mts appears to be the result of rapid, recent (possibly Pleistocene) radiation. This study reveals the limitations of ITS sequences for elucidating the radiation of poorly differentiated species (the ionantha complex). However, the molecular data strongly suggest that conservation of the Uluguru and Teita populations is essential for the protection of the full range of diversity within the genus.     

Identification of Lanius species and subspecies using tandem repeats in the mitochondrial DNA control region

The number of tandem repeats in the mitochondrial control region were used to differentiate the Red-backed Shrike Lanius collurio , Woodchat Shrike Lanius senator , Great Grey Shrike (subspecies Lanius excubitor excubitor ) and the Southern Grey Shrike (subspecies L. meridionalis meridionalis , L. m. koenigi, L. m. pallidirostris and L. m. aucheri ). The Red-backed and Woodchat Shrikes lacked repeats whereas the Great Grey and Southern Grey had two, three and 2 + 3 repeats. A subspecies of Southern Grey ( L. m. koenigi ) had 2 + 3 + 4 repeats. These findings are discussed in terms of the taxonomy of the Lanius genus, especially with respect to the Great Grey and Southern Grey Shrikes.     

The phylogenetic affinities of Crossley's babbler (Mystacornis crossleyi): adding a new niche to the vanga radiation of Madagascar

Crossley's babbler (Mystacornis crossleyi) is a passerine endemic to Madagascar. Traditionally, it has been classified as a babbler (Timaliidae), although affinities with warblers and vangas have been suggested. We investigated the phylogenetic affinities of Crossley's babbler using sequence data from two nuclear introns (myoglobin intron 2 and beta-fibrinogen intron 5) and one mitochondrial gene (ND2). We present for the first time (to our knowledge) a molecular phylogeny that confidently places this enigmatic species within the vangas (Vangidae). The inclusion of Crossley's babbler within the vangas adds another foraging niche--gleaning small invertebrates from the ground-to this already large adaptive radiation of songbirds.     

Multilocus molecular DNA variation in Winifred's Warbler Scepomycter winifredae suggests cryptic speciation and the existence of a threatened species in the Rubeho–Ukaguru Mountains of Tanzania

Winifred's Warbler Scepomycter winifredae has a disjunct but very restricted distribution in the mountains of central Tanzania. It was once known only from the Uluguru Mountains. Subsequently, this rare warbler has been recorded from the Ukaguru Mountains, and more recently from the Rubeho Mountains, as well as from Mwanihana Forest on the eastern scarp of the Udzungwa Highlands (single record). These three localities are isolated from the Uluguru Mountains by more than 100 km of lowland savannah. Here we characterize the populations morphologically and estimate demographic parameters using a multilocus molecular approach. Birds from the Uluguru Mountains differed from those of the Rubeho–Ukaguru Mountains in mtDNA by 1.6% (uncorrected) sequence divergence, or at 16 sites: one at each of the first and second codon positions, and at 14 third codon position sites. Five autosomal introns were also sequenced for a total of 2922 bp of nuclear DNA. No single nucleotide polymorphisms were completely fixed between the Uluguru and Rubeho–Ukaguru populations. Results from our coalescent analyses suggest that there is currently unlikely to be any exchange of birds between the Uluguru and Rubeho–Ukaguru populations and that the shared nuclear alleles are a consequence of lineage sorting not yet having been completed due to the recent divergence (upper Pleistocene) between these two populations. In view of the lack of gene flow between the Uluguru and Rubeho–Ukaguru populations, and morphological diagnosability, we propose to recognize the latter populations as a separate species, which we name Rubeho Warbler Scepomycter rubehoensis .     

An ancient African radiation of corvoid birds (Aves: Passeriformes) detected by mitochondrial and nuclear sequence data

The Malaconotidae, Platysteiridae and Vangidae represent an African and Malagasy assemblage of closely related corvoid taxa with distinctive morphology. Their relationships with their putative Asian closest relatives, and thus their biogeographic history, have not hitherto been thoroughly evaluated. We present evidence that the African and Malagasy groups originated through a single African colonization event c. 37.7 ± 4.6 Myr BP. Three main groups that differ in their foraging behaviour diverged c. 35.8 ± 4.5 Myr BP, suggesting that an African radiation occurred around that time. Several disperal events out of Africa to Madagascar (Vangidae) and Indo-Malaya ( Philentoma , Hemipus and Tephrodornis ) took place about 28.9 ± 4.0 Myr BP (Oligocene), a period when faunistic exchanges between Eurasia and Africa seem to have been common. Our estimation of the colonization of Madagascar by the Vangidae is 28.9 ± 4.0 Myr BP, in congruence with the estimated colonization of Madagascar by several African vertebrate groups (carnivorous mammals, snakes, sylvioid passerines, treefrogs, turtles).     

Ancient forest fragmentation or recent radiation? Testing refugial speciation models in chameleons within an African biodiversity hotspot

Aim East Africa is one of the most biologically diverse regions, especially in terms of endemism and species richness. Hypotheses put forward to explain this high diversity invoke a role for forest refugia through: (1) accumulation of new species due to radiation within refugial habitats, or (2) retention of older palaeoendemic species in stable refugia. We tested these alternative hypotheses using data for a diverse genus of East African forest chameleons, Kinyongia. Location East Africa. Methods We constructed a dated phylogeny for Kinyongia using one nuclear and two mitochondrial markers. We identified areas of high phylogenetic diversity (PD) and evolutionary diversity (ED), and mapped ancestral areas to ascertain whether lineage diversification could best be explained by vicariance or dispersal. Results Vicariance best explains the present biogeographic patterns, with divergence between three major Kinyongia clades (Albertine Rift, southern Eastern Arc, northern Eastern Arc) in the early Miocene/Oligocene (> 20 Ma). Lineage diversification within these clades pre‐dates the Pliocene (> 6 Ma). These dates are much older than the Plio‐Pleistocene climatic shifts associated with cladogenesis in other East African taxa (e.g. birds), and instead point to a scenario whereby palaeoendemics are retained in refugia, rather than more recent radiations within refugia. Estimates of PD show that diversity was highest in the Uluguru, Nguru and East Usambara Mountains and several lineages (from Mount Kenya, South Pare and the Uluguru Mountains) stand out as being evolutionarily distinct as a result of isolation in forest refugia. PD was lower than expected by chance, suggesting that the phylogenetic signal is influenced by an unusually low number of extant lineages with long branch lengths, which is probably due to the retention of palaeoendemic lineages. Main conclusions The biogeographic patterns associated with Kinyongia are the result of long evolutionary histories in isolation. The phylogeny is dominated by ancient lineages whose origins date back to the early Miocene/Oligocene as a result of continental wide forest fragmentation and contraction due to long term climatic changes in Africa. The maintenance of palaeoendemic lineages in refugia has contributed substantially to the remarkably high biodiversity of East Africa.     

Seasonal variation in understorey bird species diversity and abundance in the Uluguru Nature Reserve,Tanzania

The Uluguru Mountains form a component block of the Eastern Arc Mountains of Tanzania and Kenya and are known for a high degree of endemic vertebrate and plant taxa. Among the Eastern Arc Mountains, the Uluguru Mountains rank second in the number of endemic species. Although the forests in these mountains have received considerable ornithological attention, studies on how forest bird communities in the available low elevation forests are affected by seasons remain patchy and sporadic. Such studies are important because in the Uluguru Mountains, forest destruction in the lower slopes has been severe to an extent that there is very little substantial forest survives below 900 m above sea level. Using mist netting, seasonal variation in understorey bird communities in the remaining low elevation forests in the Uluguru Nature Reserve was assessed between 2005 and 2011. Species diversity and relative abundance of the birds were higher during the cold season in comparison with the hot season possibly due to seasonal elevational movements of some species. Elevational migrants made a large proportion of the avifauna in the study area. The results suggest that low altitude forests are important cold season refugia of elevational migrants and these forests need continual protection.     

Ultrastructure of a microsporidian hyperparasite, Unikaryon legeri (Microsporida), of trematode larvae

Unikaryon legeri (Dollfus, 1912) Canning and Nicholas, 1974, has been reexamined by electron microscopy from material collected in Portugal. It parasitises metacercariae of Meigymnophallus sp. in Cardium edule. A sporophorous vesicle forms around the sporonts, arising as a blister that separates from the electron-dense surface coat of the sporont. Sporogony is disporoblastic, giving rise to 2 spores that are retained in pairs within the sporophorous vesicle. Unikaryon piriformis, which is the type species of the genus and is also hyperparasitic in platyhelminth larvae, has not been examined by electron microscopy, and it is not known whether this species also produces sporophorous vesicles. If it does, then all that will be required is a simple addition of this character to the definition; if not, U. legeri will have to be transferred to a new genus and reclassified with other disporoblastic genera that sporulate in sporophorous vesicles.     

A revision of the genus Lasianthus (Rubiaceae) in Africa, excluding Madagascar

23 species, one subspecies and three varieties have been described or named for the pan-tropical genus Lasianthus Jack (Rubiaceae) in continental Africa. In the present revision thirteen species, five subspecies and one variety are recognized; additionally two hybrids are proposed. Of the previously named taxa, the subspecies is raised to species rank whereas two species are degraded to subspecies and variety status, respectively. Five species are synonymised including two varieties, and four are left with uncertain status, including one variety. The distribution of the genus in Africa consists of two distinct elements: one component is found in the Guineo-Congolian regional centre of endemism and one in the eastern part of Afiomontane Archipelago-like regional centre of endemism. A centre of species diversity is found in Eastern Arc Mts., where six endemic species occur together with L. laxinervis and the more widespread L. kilimandscharicus. Four of the species are strict endemics of the Uluguru Mts. In addition to the presentation of the new section: Lasianthus Sectio Membranacei, sect. nov., this revision contain two hybrids from Uluguru Mts.: L. macrocalyx × pedunculatus and L. cereifizorus × pedunculatus, and following new taxa and new combinations: L. africanus ssp. biokoensis, subsp. nov.; L. africanus ssp. mayumbensis, comb. et stat. nov.; L. kilimandscharicus ssp. glabrescens, ssp. nov.; L. kilimandscharicus ssp. glabrescens var. xanthospermus, comb. et stat. nov.; L. kilimandscharicus ssp. hirsutus, ssp. nov.; L. laxinervis, stat. nov.; L. pedunculatus ssp. angustisepalus, ssp. nov.     

The role of natural habitats in agricultural systems for bird conservation: the case of the threatened Lesser Grey Shrike

Birds of agricultural systems are one of the most threatened groups of birds in Europe mainly due to their sharp population decline in recent decades. Habitat intensification resulting from more productive agricultural practices has been proposed as a major cause for these declines. However, especially in some regions such as Eastern European and Mediterranean countries, little is known about the ultimate factors linked to habitat intensification that drive population declines for different species. The Lesser Grey Shrike is a good study species for a better understanding of such processes since it is closely related to agricultural habitats in Europe and has suffered a strong decline in range and population size across the western half of the continent. In this study, we explored variations in breeding parameters of this shrike related to habitat composition and food supply at the territory level. We found that fledgling success of early breeders was related to the presence of natural (shrub lands) and semi-natural (fallows) habitats in the predominantly agricultural matrix that dominated breeding territories. Their influence on fledgling success appeared to be mediated by a higher arthropod availability on these habitats. Indeed, Lesser Grey Shrike showed a strong preference for these habitats as hunting locations. Our results highlight the importance of natural habitats in intensified agricultural land mosaics for the conservation of bird species. We suggest that management plans should pay special attention to the availability of habitats which serve as high quality food reservoirs and can potentially contribute to enhance the species population viability in an area. Finally, we discuss the possible link between agricultural intensification and Lesser Grey Shrike population declines in Western Europe.     

Composition and phylogenetic affinities of vangas (Vangidae, Oscines, Passeriformes) based on morphological characters

The first cladistic analysis of the relationship of Malagasy vangas (Vangidae) based on morphological characters is presented here. The comparative morphological analysis provides new arguments for the exclusion of several taxa traditionally or recently assigned to Vangidae such as Tylas 'Vanga' ( Tylas eduardi ), Crossley's Babbler ( Mystacornis crossleyi ) and newtonias ( Newtonia spp.), but also for the exclusion of the Red-tailed 'Vanga' ( Calicalicus madagascariensis ) from the Vangidae. It leads also to the hypothesis that vangas sensu stricto , the Australasian woodswallows (Artamidae) and the Australo-Papuan butcherbirds (Cracticidae) form a monophyletic group, with the New Guinean peltops ( Peltops spp.) as its probable sister taxon. Such a relationship implies that the last common ancestor of vangas reached Madagascar from the east by means of a dispersal event across the Indian Ocean. This hypothesis is partly in accordance with that of William Pycraft (1907) published a century ago, but in conflict with contemporary hypotheses based on DNA sequence analysis which favour helmet-shrikes, bush shrikes and relatives as the closest relatives of vangas and therefore an African origin of this group.     

Phylogenetic relationships among Bactrocera species (Diptera: Tephritidae) inferred from mitochondrial DNA sequences

Several members of the dipteran family Tephritdae are serious pests because females lay eggs in ripening fruit. The genus Bactrocera is one of the largest within the family with over 500 described species arranged in 28 subgenera. The phylogenetic relationships among the various species and subgenera, and the monophyly of specific groups have not been examined using a rigorous phylogenetic analysis. Therefore, phylogenetic relationships among 24 Bactrocera species belonging to 9 subgenera were inferred from DNA sequence of portions of the mitochondrial 16S rRNA, cytochrome oxidase II, tRNA(Lys), and tRNA(Asp) genes. Two morphological characters that traditionally have been used to define the four groups within the subgenus Bactrocera were evaluated in a phylogenetic context by mapping the character states onto the parsimony tree. In addition, the evolutionary trend in male-lure response was evaluated in a phylogenetic context. Maximum parsimony analyses suggested the following relationships: (1) the genus Bactrocera is monophyletic, (2) the subgenus B. (Zeugodacus) is paraphyletic, (3) the subgenus B. (Daculus) is a sister group to subgenus B. (Bactrocera), and (4) the subgenus B. (Bactrocera) is monophyletic. The mapping analyses suggested that the morphological characters exhibit a simple evolutionary transition from one character state to another. Male-lure response was identified as being a labile behavior that has been lost on multiple occasions. Cue-lure response was plesiomorphic to methyl-eugenol response, and the latter has evolved independently within the Bactrocera and Zeugodacus groups of subgenera. The implications of our results for devising a coherent, consolidated classification for Bactrocera is discussed.     

Seasonal elevational movements of Eastern Olive Sunbird Cyanomitra olivacea in the Uluguru Mountains,Tanzania

Little is known about the seasonal elevational movements for most tropical avifauna species. Seasonal elevational movements of the Eastern Olive Sunbird Cyanomitra olivacea were studied along an elevational gradient from 600 to 1 500?m above sea level in the Uluguru Mountains, Tanzania, between May 2005 and February 2006. The recapture of ringed individuals along an elevational gradient across seasons provided evidence for the seasonal elevational movement of the Eastern Olive Sunbird in the Uluguru Mountains and the first documented evidence for this species in the Eastern Arc Mountains as a whole. Due to forest fragmentation and lack of corridors connecting high- and low-altitude forests in the Uluguru Mountains, the results have implications for conservation of the forest along the entire elevational gradient as well as for other forest bird species that have been documented to make seasonal elevational movements in the Uluguru Mountains and the entire Eastern Arc Mountains.     

Macrocarpium (Spach.) Nakai Should Be Reaffirmed

The genus Macrocarpium has been accepted only by a few scholars since its separation from Cornus L. by T. Nakai in 1909. Bentham, Hooker, Hutchinson and the others consider that the ovary of Macrocarpium is 2-celled and the genus should be placed back into Cornus. We have discovered that are generally I-celled. In addition, Macrocarpium is different from Cornus in basic chromosome number (X), flowering physiological character, inflorescence type and involucral scale. Thus the genus Ma-crocarpium (Spach) Nakai should be reaffirmed.     

The influence of territory characteristics and food supply on the breeding performance of the Red-backed Shrike (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Lanius collurio</Emphasis>) in an extensively farmed region of eastern Poland

The breeding performance of the Red-backed Shrike (Lanius collurio) in relation to the territory characteristics was investigated. The study was conducted in an area of high agricultural land use, characterised by small field size, a more mosaic habitat and low use of mineral fertilisers in comparison to Western European countries. The influence of habitat structure and composition in the territory on the date of clutch initiation, nest predation and clutch size in the Red-backed Shrike was not found, but such an influence on the number of nestlings was shown. The minimum adequate model explained 18.3% of the variation between territories in nestling’s number. The number of fledglings was positively correlated with the area of pastures, meadows, orchards and fallows within territories, and negatively correlated with length of overhead transmission lines. The number of fledglings was correlated with food abundance within territories, based on to the results from pitfall traps. There was no correlation between territory food abundance and the size of clutch. The presence of pastures, meadows and fallows, which are foraging places, thus seems to be crucial for the protection of the Red-backed Shrike.     

燕雀亚科鸟类的贝叶斯系统发生:非洲鹂雀的分类地位及朱雀属的进化与异质起源

鹂雀(Linurgus olivaceus)是非洲热带森林中一种独特的鸣禽,为鹂雀属(Linurgus)的惟一物种。在已有的研究中,通过对鹂雀和雀形目现存鸟类中每个科及亚科至少一个物种的线粒体DNA序列测定,分析了鹂雀与其它现存雀形目鸟类的系统发生关系;在遗传上,对鹂雀与金丝雀、金翅雀及燕雀亚科其它鸟类亦有比较研究。本研究共使用了燕雀亚科83种鸟类,重点对该亚科的系统发生进行了修订。使用贝叶斯法构建了系统发生树,结果表明:鹂雀属于燕雀亚科,系统发生树中聚在金翅雀族(Carduelini),与金丝雀属(Serinus)、金翅雀属(Carduelis)及交嘴雀属(Loxia)的种类形成一组;在系统发生中,鹂雀可能是一个基部物种,它同金丝雀属和金翅雀属鸟类一同进化并分歧出来。在本研究中未能涉及的一些已灭绝种类,可能与鹂雀有着较近的遗传学关系。另一方面,研究也表明锡嘴雀(Coccotharustes coccothraustes)肯定包括在欧亚蜡嘴雀(蜡嘴雀属Eophona和拟蜡嘴雀属Mycerobas)中,美洲的朱雀(Carpodacus)可能是从亚洲种类分歧出来并经过进化辐射形成。     

Molecular phylogeny and biogeographic diversification of Parthenocissus (Vitaceae) disjunct between Asia and North America

? Premise of the study: Parthenocissus is a genus of the grape family Vitaceae and has a disjunct distribution in Asia and North America with members in both tropical and temperate regions. The monophyly of Parthenocissus has not yet been tested, and the species relationships and the evolution of its intercontinental disjunction have not been investigated with extensive sampling and molecular phylogenetic methods. ? Methods: Plastid (trnL-F, rps16, and atpB-rbcL) and nuclear GAI1 sequences of 56 accessions representing all 12 Parthenocissus species were analyzed with parsimony, likelihood, and Bayesian inference. Divergence times of disjunct lineages were estimated with relaxed Bayesian dating. Evolution of the leaflet number was assessed by tracing this character onto Bayesian trees using the Trace Character Over Trees option in the program Mesquite. ? Key results: Parthenocissus is monophyletic and sister to the newly described segregate genus Yua. Two major clades within Parthenocissus are recognizable corresponding to their distribution in Asia and North America. The disjunction between the two continents is estimated to be at 21.64 (95% higher posterior densities 10.23-34.89) million years ago. ? Conclusions: Parthenocissus is likely to have derived from the Eocene boreotropical element. Its current Asian-North American disjunction is dated to the early Miocene, congruent with fossil and paleoclimatic evidence. The tropical species is nested within the temperate clade and is inferred to have dispersed from the adjacent temperate regions. Parthenocissus and Yua are best treated as distinct genera. Leaflet number in this genus has a complex history and cannot be used as a character for infrageneric classification.