Carbon footprint and embodied energy assessment of a civil works program in a residential estate of Western Australia

Purpose

With building construction and demolition waste accounting for 50 % of land fill space, the diversion of reusable materials is essential for Perth”s environment. The reuse and recovery of embodied energy-intensive construction materials during civil engineering works programs can offer significant energy savings and assist in the mitigation of the carbon footprint.

Methods

A streamlined life cycle assessment, with limited focus, was carried out to determine the carbon footprint and embodied energy associated with a 100-m section of road base. A life cycle inventory of inputs (energy and materials) for all processes that occurred during the development of a 100-m road section was developed. Information regarding the energy and materials used for road construction work was obtained from the Perth-based firm, Cossill and Webley, Consulting Engineers. These inputs were inserted into Simapro LCA software to calculate the associated greenhouse gas emissions and embodied energy required for the construction and maintenance of a 100-m road section using. Two approaches were employed; a traditional approach that predominantly employed virgin materials, and a recycling approach.

Results and discussion

The GHG emissions and embodied energy associated with the construction of a 100-m road section using virgin materials are 180 tonnes of CO₂-e and 10.7 terajoules (TJ), respectively. The substitution of crushed rock with recycled brick road base does not appear to reduce the carbon footprint in the pre-construction stage (i.e. from mining to material construction, plus transportation of materials to the construction site). However, this replacement could potentially offer environmental benefits by reducing quarrying activities, which would not only conserve native bushland but also reduce the loss of biodiversity along with reducing the space and cost requirements associated with landfill. In terms of carbon footprint, it appears that GHG emissions are reduced significantly when using recycled asphalt, as opposed to other materials. About 22 to 30 % of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions can be avoided by replacing 50 to 100 % of virgin asphalt with Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP) during the maintenance period.

Conclusions

The use of recycled building and road construction materials such as asphalt, concrete, and limestone can potentially reduce the embodied energy and greenhouse gas emissions associated with road construction. The recycling approach that uses 100 % reused crushed rock base and recycled concrete rubble, and 15 % RAP during the maintenance period could reduce the total carbon footprint by approximately 6 %. This large carbon saving in pavement construction is made possible by increasing the percentage of RAP in the wearing course.     

The Consequences of Substituting Sand with Used Copper Slag in Construction

Using waste copper slag (CS) as a replacement for sand in concrete mixture is becoming popular in Singapore and around the world. What are the consequences of this material substitution? Will this result in lower environmental impact? This work used attributional and consequential life cycle assessments to evaluate the net results of replacing sand with CS. Impacts were assessed with respect to embodied energy and greenhouse gas emissions (global warming potential; GWP). It was found that embodied energy and GWP of using a combination of 0.13 kilograms (kg) of CS and 0.9 kg of sand are higher than those of 1 kg of sand. If CS replaces sand and the leftover sand replaces crushed rock sand, the net embodied energy and GWP may also increase. Landfilling the waste CS is similar to recycling it as a building material, in terms of embodied energy incurred and GWPs. Finally, four lessons from these findings were used to suggest a few integrated sustainable resource management policies for the building material and shipping industries.     

Acid Stream Water Remediation Using Limestone Sand on Bear Run in Southwestern Pennsylvania

Instream limestone sand application is used at many sites in Pennsylvania to neutralize acidic stream water resulting from acid deposition. However, questions remain about the effectiveness of limestone sand in the treatment of acid waters, such as reduced contact time at high flow, remobilization of aluminum, and adverse effects on macroinvertebrates. A 1‐year evaluation of limestone sand application to Bear Run, an acidic stream in southwestern Pennsylvania, was begun in 1999. Another nearby acid stream, Linn Run, served as a control. Water quality during baseflow and episodic acidification events, along with fish and macroinvertebrates, were monitored to evaluate impacts of the sand application. Hydrogen ion (H ⁺ ) concentration and total dissolved aluminum (TDA) were significantly reduced, and acid neutralizing capacity was significantly increased downstream of the limestone sand application compared with the upstream site on Bear Run. These parameters at the downstream sites were also different (∝ 0.10) from the comparable sites on the control stream. TDA and hydrogen ion concentrations were significantly decreased (∝ 0.10) compared with concentrations before the sand application to Bear Run but not on the control stream. No fish were present upstream of the sand application site, and only a few fish were found downstream at the mouth of Bear Run. Standing crop, number of taxa, and Shannon‐Weaver diversity index values indicated that macroinvertebrate populations were negatively impacted 300 m downstream from the sand application and improved at the site 1,600 m downstream. Although water quality was improved on Bear Run, benefits to macroinvertebrates depended on downstream location, and fish populations did not show improvement.     

Effects of Chronic Human Activities on Invasion of Longleaf Pine Forests by Sand Pine

Chronic human activities may result in new and permanent successional trajectories in certain ecosystems. The invasion of longleaf pine ecosystems by sand pine in the Florida Panhandle is one such change in the landscape. This study examined the spatial pattern of sand pine expansion and explored the natural and anthropogenic disturbances that fostered this invasion. Aerial photographs (1949, 1994) and Geographic Information Systems analyses confirmed sand pine expansion at Eglin Air Force Base. In 1949, there were 8,982 ha of sand pine in the southern portion of the study area near riparian and coastal lowland forests. By 1994, sand pine had expanded further upland and inland, for a total of 17,147 ha in the study area. Sand pine age data showed that this expansion had started by 1920 but increased rapidly in the 1940s. Historical accounts and structural data from stands suggest that land-use activities associated with the extraction of turpentine promoted the invasion by sand pine. Fires were suppressed in longleaf pine forests to protect turpentine trees, resulting in increased vegetation cover and decreased regeneration of longleaf pine. In addition, stands were typically harvested after turpentining, and there was little or no advanced regeneration of longleaf pine. Sand pine age histograms showed that the onset of high establishment rates (1940s) coincided with changes in land ownership and widespread fire suppression. Sand pine is likely to persist in these ecosystems due to its abundant regeneration. Received 17 March 1999; accepted 28 January 2000.     

毛乌素沙地沙漠化逆转过程土壤颗粒固碳效应

为揭示毛乌素沙地沙漠化逆转过程中土壤颗粒的固碳效应,选择陕北榆林治沙区从流沙地、半固定沙地到林龄为20～55年生的灌木和20～50年生的乔木固沙林地,采用物理分组法分析了土壤砂粒、粉粒、黏粒结合碳的演变特征和累积速率.结果表明: 对比流沙地,土壤总有机碳及各颗粒碳含量在两种固沙林地均呈显著增加趋势,并以表层0～5 cm土壤碳含量增幅最高.从流沙地到55年生灌木和50年生乔木固沙林地,0～5 cm土层砂粒碳密度增速均为0.05 Mg·hm^-2·a^-1,粉粒碳密度增速分别为0.05和0.08 Mg·hm^-2·a^-1,而黏粒碳密度增速分别为0.02和0.03 Mg·hm^-2·a^-1.0～20 cm土层,两种林地各颗粒碳密度增速平均为0～5 cm土层的2.1倍.按此增速到50～55年生的固沙林地时,两种林地0～20 cm土层的砂粒碳、粉粒碳和黏粒碳密度分别比流沙地平均提高6.7、18.1、4.4倍,并且颗粒碳对总有机碳的累积贡献率平均为粉粒碳(39.7%)≈砂粒碳(34.6%)>黏粒碳(25.6%).综上,毛乌素沙地沙漠化逆转过程土壤颗粒均表现出显著的固碳效应,且以砂粒和粉粒为主要固碳组分.     

Multi-attribute life cycle assessment of preventive maintenance treatments on road pavements for achieving environmental sustainability

Purpose  

Although a significant number of environmental protection measures concerning industrial products and processes have emerged over the past few years, similar measures have only started to appear in road construction and related practices. There is a need for understanding what a “sustainable pavement” would entail in terms of greenhouse gas emissions and energy consumption. Since environmental impact assessment of major projects is becoming mandatory in many countries, various research projects attempt to evaluate the environmental impact of different pavement materials, technologies, or processes over the road life cycle. To support these efforts, there is a need to measure and describe different aspects of sustainability related to road pavements. In particular, keeping road pavements at high service levels through a preventive maintenance approach during the pavement service life has been proven to provide significant improvement of their performance and reduce their deterioration rate.     

Sand burial effects on seed germination, seedling emergence and establishment of Panicum virgatum

Studies in the field and in a greenhouse were conducted to examine the effects of sand burial on seed germination, seedling emergence and establishment of Panicum virgatum L. on the foredunes of Lake Erie. Under natural conditions, the seedlings emerged from sand burial depths ranging from 0 to 11 cm, with a mean ± SD of 4.73 ± 1.82 cm. The frequency distribution of the depth of emergence of seedlings in the field was significantly skewed to the right and platykurtic. In the greenhouse, some seedlings emerged from a burial depth of as much as 16 cm. Although percent germination of seeds was not affected by sand burial, the percent emergence and the rate of emergence of seedlings were significantly reduced by excessive sand burial. Seedling mortality was found only among seedlings that emerged from sand burial depths of 10 cm or more. In the field, all the seedlings established in one growing season had originally emerged from sand burial depths of less than 12 cm. Within this burial range, seedlings from shallower burial depths had lower chances of establishment than expected, whereas those from deeper burial depths had higher probabilities of establishment than expected.     

沙漠化对沙地土壤呼吸的影响及其对环境变化的响应

为了了解沙漠化过程中土壤呼吸速率变化及其对环境因素变化的响应,于2005年在科尔沁沙地研究了固定、半固定和流动沙地的土壤呼吸日变化和生长季动态及其与环境变化的关系,得出以下结论:(1)3种沙地土壤呼吸日变化在春季和秋季呈单峰曲线,夏季呈多峰曲线;(2)3种沙地土壤呼吸速率从春季到秋季的季节动态均呈双峰曲线,峰值分别出现在6月下旬和8月下旬;(3)固定和半固定沙地的土壤呼吸的日变化幅度明显大于流动沙地,季节变化幅度也是固定沙地半固定沙地流动沙地;(4)随着沙漠化的发展,土壤呼吸平均速率明显下降,生长季平均土壤呼吸速率从固定沙地的2.32μmolCO2/(m·2s)降为半固定的1.65μmolCO2/(m·2s)和流动沙地的1.06μmolCO2/(m·2s);(5)3种沙地土壤呼吸速率日变化均与土壤温度呈正相关,与空气湿度呈负相关,在季节尺度上3种沙地土壤呼吸速率与土壤温度、土壤水分和大气湿度均呈正相关,但只有固定沙地的相关性达到了显著水平;(6)沙漠化过程中,虽然土壤温度、土壤有机碳含量和植物根系碳含量都是导致沙地土壤呼吸发生改变的重要因子,但制约其变化的关键因子还是土壤水分和空气湿度。     

Physico-chemical impacts of terrestrial alien vegetation on temporary wetlands in a sclerophyllous Sand fynbos ecosystem

Temporary depression wetlands form a characteristic feature of the wet-season landscape in the south-western Cape region of South Africa, yet they remain largely unstudied. We hypothesized that the loss of sclerophyllous Sand fynbos habitat around these temporary wetlands causes in-wetland physico-chemical changes. We expected to observe a decrease in the concentration of humic substances in wetlands and a corresponding rise in surface water pH as fynbos cover decreases around wetlands, in this case owing to alien vegetation invasion. A set of 12 differentially invaded temporary depression wetlands within a Sand fynbos ecosystem in Cape Town were repeatedly sampled during the 2009 wet season. Multivariate gradient analysis techniques revealed associations between fynbos cover bordering wetlands and various physico-chemical and biotope constituents within wetlands. Univariate linear regression models reported strong and temporally consistent negative relationships between terrestrial fynbos vegetation cover and wetland pH and positive relationships with humic content. Results indicate that replacement of Sand fynbos with alien vegetation causes a reduction of humic input to wetlands, which in turn has knock-on effects on other wetland environmental constituents such as pH. These findings are expected to be applicable to any wetland where surrounding humic-rich sclerophyllous vegetation is replaced by a non-sclerophyllous agent.     

The Effects of Doubling Limestone Sand Applications in Two Acidic Southwestern Pennsylvania Streams

We studied the effects of limestone sand additions in Bear and Rock runs, two chronically and episodically acidified streams in southwestern Pennsylvania, U.S.A. Linn Run, a nearby episodically acidified stream, served as a reference stream. Our objectives were to evaluate the effects of doubling recommended limestone sand amounts on water quality and macroinvertebrates on Bear and Rock runs and to assess substrate changes resulting from limestone sand inundation. Approximately 23 and 6 tonnes of limestone sand were added annually to the headwaters of Bear and Rock runs, respectively, from 1999 to 2001. In 2002, amounts were doubled. Macroinvertebrate communities were assessed from 1999 to 2003 at points above and below the sand additions on Bear Run and Rock Run. Small, plastic substrate samplers were used to assess sand substrate effects. Doubling annual limestone sand amounts resulted in significantly improved pH and acid‐neutralizing capacity; however, total dissolved aluminum increased significantly downstream (α≤ 0.05). Macroinvertebrate density and diversity were not significantly affected, but an increase in acid‐sensitive taxa was observed at a site 3,500 m downstream. Substrate sampler data indicated a significant negative relationship between amount of sand deposited and density of macroinvertebrates. The mixed water quality and benthic macroinvertebrate results were reasonably consistent with earlier work and call into question the use of limestone sand in the restoration of chronically and episodically acidified waters.     

浑善达克沙地沙地榆种子雨的扩散规律

于2010年采用定点连续观测的方法,研究了浑善达克沙地不同树龄(23年生、40年生、56年生)沙地榆孤立木种子雨的数量、组成及散布过程,分析沙地榆种子雨的扩散规律及其与外界环境干扰因子的关系。结果表明:(1)孤立木种子雨的总量随其年龄增长而增加,其中56年生孤立木>40年生孤立木>23年生孤立木,其种子雨的总量分别为(7744±16.26)粒/m2、(5236±18.87)粒/m2、(2456±12.67)粒/m2;(2)40年生孤立木的种子质量较好,成熟种子的比例最高,未成熟、空粒和虫害种子的比例较低,56年生孤立木次之,23年生孤立木质量最差,56年生沙地榆和40年生沙地榆是自然更新种子的主要来源;(3)榆树种子于当年5月下旬开始成熟并于6月初开始脱落,6月中旬达到降落高峰期,落种持续到6月下旬结束,落种期持续近1个月;(4)种子雨的前扩散过程中种子集中降落在主风向的下风向50 m和树冠周围20 m的范围内;(5)在种子的后扩散过程中,种子沿下风向继续运动,散落在下风向50 m范围或更远处,后扩散对前扩散表现为"削锋"作用。     

Growth and Abundance of Pacific Sand Lance, Ammodytes hexapterus, under differing Oceanographic Regimes

Dramatic changes in seabird and marine mammal stocks in the Gulf of Alaska have been linked to shifts in abundance and composition of forage fish stocks over the past 20 years. The relative value (e.g., size and condition of individual fish, abundance) of specific forage fish stocks to predators under temporally changing oceanographic regimes is also expected to vary. We inferred potential temporal responses in abundance, growth, and age structure of a key forage fish, sand lance, by studying across spatially different oceanographic regimes. Marked meso-scale differences in abundance, growth, and mortality existed in conjunction with these differing regimes. Growth rate within stocks (between years) was positively correlated with temperature. However, this relationship did not exist among stocks (locations) and differing growth rates were better correlated to marine productivity. Sand lance were least abundant and grew slowest at the warmest site (Chisik Island), an area of limited habitat and low food abundance. Abundance and growth of juvenile sand lance was highest at the coolest site (Barren Islands), an area of highly productive upwelled waters. Sand lance at two sites located oceanographically between the Barren Islands and Chisik Island (inner- and outer-Kachemak Bay) displayed correspondingly intermediate abundance and growth. Resident predators at these sites are presented with markedly different numbers and quality of this key prey species. Our results suggest that at the decadal scale, Gulf of Alaska forage fish such as sand lance are probably more profoundly affected by changes in abundance and quality of their planktonic food, than by temperature alone.     

Hierarchical analysis of genetic structure in the habitat‐specialist Eastern Sand Darter (Ammocrypta pellucida)

Quantifying spatial genetic structure can reveal the relative influences of contemporary and historic factors underlying localized and regional patterns of genetic diversity and gene flow – important considerations for the development of effective conservation efforts. Using 10 polymorphic microsatellite loci, we characterize genetic variation among populations across the range of the Eastern Sand Darter (Ammocrypta pellucida), a small riverine percid that is highly dependent on sandy substrate microhabitats. We tested for fine scale, regional, and historic patterns of genetic structure. As expected, significant differentiation was detected among rivers within drainages and among drainages. At finer scales, an unexpected lack of within‐river genetic structure among fragmented sandy microhabitats suggests that stratified dispersal resulting from unstable sand bar habitat degradation (natural and anthropogenic) may preclude substantial genetic differentiation within rivers. Among‐drainage genetic structure indicates that postglacial (14 kya) drainage connectivity continues to influence contemporary genetic structure among Eastern Sand Darter populations in southern Ontario. These results provide an unexpected contrast to other benthic riverine fish in the Great Lakes drainage and suggest that habitat‐specific fishes, such as the Eastern Sand Darter, can evolve dispersal strategies that overcome fragmented and temporally unstable habitats.     

Bacterial Infection and Immune Responses in Lutzomyia longipalpis Sand Fly Larvae Midgut

The midgut microbial community in insect vectors of disease is crucial for an effective immune response against infection with various human and animal pathogens. Depending on the aspects of their development, insects can acquire microbes present in soil, water, and plants. Sand flies are major vectors of leishmaniasis, and shown to harbor a wide variety of Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. Sand fly larval stages acquire microorganisms from the soil, and the abundance and distribution of these microorganisms may vary depending on the sand fly species or the breeding site. Here, we assess the distribution of two bacteria commonly found within the gut of sand flies, Pantoea agglomerans and Bacillus subtilis. We demonstrate that these bacteria are able to differentially infect the larval digestive tract, and regulate the immune response in sand fly larvae. Moreover, bacterial distribution, and likely the ability to colonize the gut, is driven, at least in part, by a gradient of pH present in the gut.     

Environmental benefits and sustainable land‐use options in the Jambi transect,Sumatra

Abstract. Loss of environmental services provided by forests is a non‐linear process in Jambi Province, Sumatra, Indonesia. Intermediate‐intensity land‐use types in the form of complex agroforests have maintained global environmental benefits under a sustainable and profitable land use regime. Conversion to tree crop monocultures, however, poses a challenge to the environmental stakeholders and an opportunity from to stakeholders in the private economy. We quantified environmental indicators, as well as profitability and sustainability of a range of existing and possible production systems. Criteria and indicators were used at plot to landscape scales, taking into account local, national and global perspectives. Agronomic sustainability and profitability were assessed at plot level as they are of primarily local concern, while environmental services of forests, such as plant species and functional type richness, carbon stocks, greenhouse gas emissions, and trans‐boundary haze, which are of national and global concern, were assessed at landscape level. Quantitative trade‐offs and complementarities were analysed between global environmental benefits and local profitability. The current trend towards simplification of the complex agro‐ecosystems and inherent loss of environmental services of forests is driven by profitability. The sequence in which environmental services of forests are lost is: standing carbon stocks, biodiversity, and low or negative greenhouse gas emissions.     

Sustainable sourcing of strategic raw materials by integrating recycled materials

In this paper we investigate a manufacturer’s sustainable sourcing strategy that includes recycled materials. To produce a short life-cycle electronic good, strategic raw materials can be bought from virgin material suppliers in advance of the season and via emergency shipments, as well as from a recycler. Hence, we take into account virgin and recycled materials from different sources simultaneously. Recycling makes it possible to integrate raw materials out of steadily increasing waste streams back into production processes. Considering stochastic prices for recycled materials, stochastic supply quantities from the recycler and stochastic demand as well as their potential dependencies, we develop a single-period inventory model to derive the order quantities for virgin and recycled raw materials to determine the related costs and to evaluate the effectiveness of the sourcing strategy. We provide managerial insights into the benefits of such a green sourcing approach with recycling and compare this strategy to standard sourcing without recycling. We conduct a full factorial design and a detailed numerical sensitivity analysis on the key input parameters to evaluate the cost savings potential. Furthermore, we consider the effects of correlations between the stochastic parameters. Green sourcing is especially beneficial in terms of cost savings for high demand variability, high prices of virgin raw material and low expected recycling prices as well as for increasing standard deviation of the recycling price. Besides these advantages it also contributes to environmental sustainability as, compared to sourcing without recycling, it reduces the total quantity ordered and, hence, emissions are reduced.     

沙障对流动沙丘区地表节肢动物分布及多样性的影响

沙障作为人工固沙植被恢复与保护绿洲和道路安全的一种手段,可以有效阻止沙丘移动,改变流动沙丘地表生态水文过程,进而影响节肢动物多样性及营养结构及功能变化。鉴于此,选取临泽县中部沙带为研究区,利用陷阱法系统调查了生物、物理沙障和流动沙丘区沙丘不同部位地表节肢动物分布及多样性。研究结果表明,沙障营建强烈影响了流动沙丘区地表节肢动物组成,生物和物理沙障区地表节肢动物的活动密度、物种丰富度及多样性均显著高于流动沙丘区,捕食性和其它食性节肢动物较植食性节肢动物对沙障营建的响应更为敏感。沙障还改变了沙丘地表节肢动物的分布规律,生物和物理沙障区地表节肢动物的活动密度从沙丘底部到顶部依次增加,而流动沙丘区地表节肢动物主要分布在沙丘中下部。谢氏宽漠王和尖尾东鳖甲在流动沙丘区主要分布沙丘的中下部,沙障营建导致沙丘顶部谢氏宽漠王和尖尾东鳖甲的活动密度大幅提高。此外,研究还发现生物和物理沙障对地表节肢动物的影响不同,生物沙障区地表节肢动物活动密度显著高于物理沙障区,捕食性和东鳖甲属等其它食性节肢动物的活动密度在生物沙障区均高于物理沙障区。总之,沙障营建及类型差异强烈影响地表节肢动物的分布及多样性,它通过资源上行效应和土壤物理环境的改变提高了地表节肢动物的多样性及营养结构,从而影响了土壤生态系统结构及功能变化过程。     

Indicators to support environmental sustainability of bioenergy systems

Indicators are needed to assess environmental sustainability of bioenergy systems. Effective indicators will help in the quantification of benefits and costs of bioenergy options and resource uses. We identify 19 measurable indicators for soil quality, water quality and quantity, greenhouse gases, biodiversity, air quality, and productivity, building on existing knowledge and on national and international programs that are seeking ways to assess sustainable bioenergy. Together, this suite of indicators is hypothesized to reflect major environmental effects of diverse feedstocks, management practices, and post-production processes. The importance of each indicator is identified. Future research relating to this indicator suite is discussed, including field testing, target establishment, and application to particular bioenergy systems. Coupled with such efforts, we envision that this indicator suite can serve as a basis for the practical evaluation of environmental sustainability in a variety of bioenergy systems.     

Valorization of Foundry Sand in Clay Bricks at Industrial Scale

In this article, foundry sand as waste material has been valorized in ceramic brick manufacturing at industrial scale. The employment of a waste coming from one industry as an input for another is one of the key concepts of industrial ecology. To study the environmental behavior of the ceramic bodies in different life cycle stages, three leaching tests have been developed. We used an EN 12457 equilibrium leaching test with distilled water and a Wastewater Technology Centre acid neutralization capacity (WTC‐ANC) leaching test with different acidic leachates to carry out the environmental evaluation under different granular scenarios to ascertain the possibilities of the reuse or disposal of this granular material at the end of its useful life (end‐of‐life stage). Finally, we used a NEN 7345 diffusion leaching test for construction materials, with the aim of studying the environmental assessment at the use stage. Regulated pollutants in both stages have been evaluated. Furthermore, other soluble salts have been analyzed because they are closely related to the efflorescence phenomenon in bricks. Results indicate that core and green sand from the foundry industry can be used to replace clay content in construction materials, and that these foundry‐sand‐based ceramics improve some soluble salt results. Despite this fact, at the end‐of‐life stage in an inert waste landfill, lead, arsenic and chromium can be an environmental problem, both for commercial bricks and for foundry‐sand‐based bricks. This work can contribute to the determination of viability of sustainable processes of brick manufacturing that use foundry wastes as raw materials.