Prediction of a new class of RNA recognition motif

The observation that activation domains (AD) of procarboxypeptidases are rather long compared to the pro-regions of other zymogens raises the possibility that they could play additional roles apart from precluding enzymatic activity within the proenzyme and helping in its folding process. In the present work, we compared the overall pro-domain tertiary structure with several proteins belonging to the same fold in the structural classification of proteins (SCOP) database by using structure and sequence comparisons. The best score obtained was between the activation domain of human procarboxypeptidase A4 (ADA4h) and the human U1A protein from the U1 snRNP. Structural alignment revealed the existence of RNP1- and RNP2-related sequences in ADA4h. After modeling ADA4h on U1A, the new structure was used to extract a new sequence pattern characteristic for important residues at key positions. The new sequence pattern allowed scanning protein sequences to predict the RNA-binding function for 32 sequences undetected by PFAM. Unspecific RNA electrophoretic mobility shift assays experimentally supported the prediction that ADA4h binds an RNA motif similar to the U1A binding-motif of stem-loop II of U1 small nuclear RNA. The experiments carried out with ADA4h in the present work suggest the sharing of a common ancestor with other RNA recognition motifs. However, the fact that key residues preventing activity within the proenzyme are also key residues for RNA binding might have induced the activation domains of procarboxypeptidases to evolve from the canonical RNP1 and RNP2 sequences.     

Apparent local stability of the secondary structure of Azotobacter vinelandii holoflavodoxin II as probed by hydrogen exchange: implications for redox potential regulation and flavodoxin folding.

As a first step to determine the folding pathway of a protein with an alpha/beta doubly wound topology, the 1H, 13C, and 15N backbone chemical shifts of Azotobacter vinelandii holoflavodoxin II (179 residues) have been determined using multidimensional NMR spectroscopy. Its secondary structure is shown to contain a five-stranded parallel beta-sheet (beta2-beta1-beta3-beta4-beta5) and five alpha-helices. Exchange rates for the individual amide protons of holoflavodoxin were determined using the hydrogen exchange method. The amide protons of 65 residues distributed throughout the structure of holoflavodoxin exchange slowly at pH* 6.2 [kex < 10(-5) s(-1)] and can be used as probes in future folding studies. Measured exchange rates relate to apparent local free energies for transient opening. We propose that the amide protons in the core of holoflavodoxin only exchange by global unfolding of the apo state of the protein. The results obtained are discussed with respect to their implications for flavodoxin folding and for modulation of the flavin redox potential by the apoprotein. We do not find any evidence that A. vinelandii holoflavodoxin II is divided into two subdomains based on its amide proton exchange rates, as opposed to what is found for the structurally but not sequentially homologous alpha/beta doubly wound protein Che Y.     

Investigation of the four cooperative unfolding units existing in the MICAL-1 CH domain

The solution structure of human MICAL-1 calpolnin homology (CH) domain is composed of six alpha helices and one 3(10) helix. To study the unfolding of this domain, we carry out native-state hydrogen exchange, intrinsic fluorescence and far-UV circular dichroism experiments. The free energy of unfolding, DeltaG(H2O), is calculated to be 7.11+/-0.58 kcal mol(-1) from GuHCl denaturation at pH 6.5. Four cooperative unfolding units are found using native-state hydrogen exchange experiment. Forty-seven slow-exchange residues can be studied by native-state hydrogen exchange experiments. From the concentration dependence of exchange rates, free energy of amide hydrogen with solvent, DeltaG(HX) and m-value (sensitivity of exposure to denaturant) are obtained, which reveal four cooperative unfolding units. The slowest exchanging protons are distributed throughout the whole hydrophobic core of the protein, which might be the folding core. These results will help us understand the structure of MICAL-1 CH domain more deeply.     

Hydrogen exchange of the tetramerization domain of the human tumour suppressor p53 probed by denaturants and temperature.

We have analysed the hydrogen/deuterium exchange of the tetramerization domain of human tumour suppressor p53 under mild chemical denaturation conditions, and at different temperatures. Exchange behaviour has been measured for 16 amide protons in the chemical-denaturation studies and for seven protons in the temperature-denaturation studies. The exchange rates are in the range observed for other proteins with similar elements of secondary structure. The slowest-exchange core includes contributions from residues in the alpha helix and the beta sheet. However, only some of the slowest-exchanging protons correspond to residues involved in native interactions in the transient intermediate detected during the folding of this domain. The guanidinium-chloride denaturation curves of all residues seem to merge together, although they are well below the main isotherm of global unfolding. Thus, there is no evidence for several subglobal unfolding units. The activation parameters obtained from the temperature-denaturation experiments are similar to those obtained for monomeric proteins, and well below the global unfolding enthalpy obtained by circular dichroism measurements. Thus, the exchange studies at different denaturant concentrations and temperatures indicate that no particular folding intermediate is populated under those conditions.     

Rationalising lysozyme amyloidosis: insights from the structure and solution dynamics of T70N lysozyme

T70N human lysozyme is the only known naturally occurring destabilised lysozyme variant that has not been detected in amyloid deposits in human patients. Its study and a comparison of its properties with those of the amyloidogenic variants of lysozyme is therefore important for understanding the determinants of amyloid disease. We report here the X-ray crystal structure and the solution dynamics of T70N lysozyme, as monitored by hydrogen/deuterium exchange and NMR relaxation experiments. The X-ray crystal structure shows that a substantial structural rearrangement results from the amino acid substitution, involving residues 45-51 and 68-75 in particular, and gives rise to a concomitant separation of these two loops of up to 6.5A. A marked decrease in the magnitudes of the generalised order parameter (S2) values of the amide nitrogen atom, for residues 70-74, shows that the T70N substitution increases the flexibility of the peptide backbone around the site of mutation. Hydrogen/deuterium exchange protection factors measured by NMR spectroscopy were calculated for the T70N variant and the wild-type protein. The protection factors for many of backbone amide groups in the beta-domain of the T70N variant are decreased relative to those in the wild-type protein, whereas those in the alpha-domain display wild-type-like values. In pulse-labelled hydrogen/deuterium exchange experiments monitored by mass spectrometry, transient but locally cooperative unfolding of the beta-domain of the T70N variant and the wild-type protein was observed, but at higher temperatures than for the amyloidogenic variants I56T and D67H. These findings reveal that such partial unfolding is an intrinsic property of the human lysozyme structure, and suggest that the readiness with which it occurs is a critical feature determining whether or not amyloid deposition occurs in vivo.     

The native state conformational ensemble of the SH3 domain from alpha-spectrin.

The folding/unfolding equilibrium of the alpha-spectrin SH3 domain has been measured by NMR-detected hydrogen/deuterium exchange and by differential scanning calorimetry. Protection factors against exchange have been obtained under native conditions for more than half of the residues in the domain. Most protected residues are located at the beta-strands, the short 3(10) helix, and part of the long RT loop, whereas the loops connecting secondary structure elements show no measurable protection. Apparent stability constants per residue and their corresponding Gibbs energies have been calculated from the exchange experiments. The most stable region of the SH3 domain is defined by the central portions of the beta-strands. The peptide binding region, on the other hand, is composed of a highly stable region (residues 53-57) and a highly unstable region, the loop between residues 34-41 (n-Src loop). All residues in the domain have apparent Gibbs energies lower than the global unfolding Gibbs energy measured by differential scanning calorimetry, indicating that under our experimental conditions the amide exchange of all residues in the SH3 domain occurs primarily via local unfolding reactions. A structure-based thermodynamic analysis has allowed us to predict correctly the thermodynamics of the global unfolding of the domain and to define the ensemble of conformational states that quantitatively accounts for the observed pattern of hydrogen exchange protection. These results demonstrate that under native conditions the SH3 domain needs to be considered as an ensemble of conformations and that the hydrogen exchange data obtained under those conditions cannot be interpreted by a two-state equilibrium. The observation that specific regions of a protein are able to undergo independent local folding/unfolding reactions indicates that under native conditions the scale of cooperative interactions is regional rather than global.     

Mutational analysis of acylphosphatase suggests the importance of topology and contact order in protein folding.

Muscle acylphosphatase (AcP) is a small protein that folds very slowly with two-state behavior. The conformational stability and the rates of folding and unfolding have been determined for a number of mutants of AcP in order to characterize the structure of the folding transition state. The results show that the transition state is an expanded version of the native protein, where most of the native interactions are partially established. The transition state of AcP turns out to be remarkably similar in structure to that of the activation domain of procarboxypeptidase A2 (ADA2h), a protein having the same overall topology but sharing only 13% sequence identity with AcP. This suggests that transition states are conserved between proteins with the same native fold. Comparison of the rates of folding of AcP and four other proteins with the same topology, including ADA2h, supports the concept that the average distance in sequence between interacting residues (that is, the contact order) is an important determinant of the rate of protein folding.     

Quaternary structure of aldolase leads to differences in its folding and unfolding intermediates

Pulsed hydrogen exchange mass spectrometry has been used to investigate folding of rabbit muscle aldolase, an alpha/beta-barrel protein exhibiting the classic TIM structure. Aldolase unfolded in GdHCl refolded as the denaturant concentration was reduced by dialysis. Samples withdrawn during dialysis were pulse-labeled with deuterium to identify unfolded regions in structural forms highly populated during the folding process. Intact, labeled aldolase was digested into fragments, which were analyzed by HPLC electrospray ionization mass spectrometry to detect the H/D exchange along the aldolase backbone. For some concentrations of GdHCl, bimodal distributions of deuterium were found for most peptic fragments, indicating that regions represented by these fragments were either unfolded or folded in the intact polypeptide prior to labeling. The extent of folding was determined from these mass spectra, as well as by CD (220 nm) and enzymatic activity. These results show that folding to the active form involves three domains and two intermediates. Approximately 110 residues fold to highly compact forms in each step. These results also show that each folding domain includes widely separated regions of the backbone. When compared with the results of a previous study of aldolase unfolding, these results show that the folding and unfolding domains include most of the same residues. However, three short segments change domains depending on whether the process is folding or unfolding. These changes are attributed to the very stable quaternary structure of rabbit muscle aldolase.     

Structure and dynamics of the potato carboxypeptidase inhibitor by 1H and 15N NMR

The solution structure and backbone dynamics of the recombinant potato carboxypeptidase inhibitor (PCI) have been characterized by NMR spectroscopy. The structure, determined on the basis of 497 NOE-derived distance constraints, is much better defined than the one reported in a previous NMR study, with an average pairwise backbone root-mean-square deviation of 0.5 A for the well-defined region of the protein, residues 7-37. Many of the side-chains show now well-defined conformations, both in the hydrophobic core and on the surface of the protein. Overall, the solution structure of free PCI is similar to the one that it shows in the crystal of the complex with carboxypeptidase A. However, some local differences are observed in regions 15-21 and 27-29. In solution, the six N-terminal and the two C-terminal residues are rather flexible, as shown by 15N backbone relaxation measurements. The flexibility of the latter segment may have implications in the binding of the inhibitor by the enzyme. All the remaining residues in the protein are essentially rigid (S2 > 0.8) with the exception of two of them at the end of a short 3/10 helix. Despite the small size of the protein, a number of amide protons are protected from exchange with solvent deuterons. The slowest exchanging protons are those in a small two-strand beta-sheet. The unfolding free energies, as calculated from the exchange rates of these protons, are around 5 kcal/mol. Other protected amide protons are located in the segment 7-12, adjacent to the beta-sheet. Although these residues are not in an extended conformation in PCI, the equivalent residues in structurally homologous proteins form a third strand of the central beta-sheet. The amide protons in the 3/10 helix are only marginally protected, indicating that they exchange by a local unfolding mechanism, which is consistent with the increase in flexibility shown by some of its residues. Backbone alignment-based programs for folding recognition, as opposite to disulfide-bond alignments, reveal new proteins of unrelated sequence and function with a similar structure.     

Detection and structure determination of an equilibrium unfolding intermediate of Rd-apocytochrome b562: native fold with non-native hydrophobic interactions

The absence of detectable kinetic and equilibrium folding intermediates by optical probes is commonly taken to indicate that protein folding is a two-state process. However, for some small proteins with apparent two-state behavior, unfolding intermediates have been identified in native-state hydrogen exchange or kinetic unfolding experiments monitored by nuclear magnetic resonance. Rd-apocytochrome b(562), a four-helix bundle, is one such protein. Here, we found another unfolding intermediate for Rd-apocytochrome b(562). It is based on a cooperative transition of (15)N chemical shifts of amide protons as a function of urea concentrations before the global unfolding. We have solved the high-resolution structure of the protein at 2.8 M urea, which is after this cooperative transition but before the global unfolding. All four helices remained intact, but a number of hydrophobic core residues repacked. This intermediate provides a possible structural interpretation for the kinetic unfolding intermediates observed using nuclear magnetic resonance methods for several proteins and has important implications for theoretical studies of protein folding.     

Amide proton exchange measurements as a probe of the stability and dynamics of the N-terminal domain of the ribosomal protein L9: comparison with the intact protein.

Amide H/D exchange rates have been measured for the N-terminal domain of the ribosomal protein L9, residues 1-56. The rates were measured at pD 3.91, 5.03, and 5.37. At pD 5.37, 18 amides exchange slowly enough to give reliable rate measurements. At pD 3.91, seven additional residues could be followed. The exchange is shown to occur by the EX2 mechanism for all conditions studied. The rates for the N-terminal domain are very similar to those previously measured for the corresponding region in the full-length protein (Lillemoen J et al., 1997, J Mol Biol 268:482-493). In particular, the rates for the residues that we have shown to exchange via global unfolding in the N-terminal domain agree within the experimental error with the rates measured by Hoffman and coworkers, suggesting that the structure of the domain is preserved in isolation and that the stability of the isolated domain is comparable to the stability of this domain in intact L9.     

Stabilization of native protein fold by intein-mediated covalent cyclization

A mutant version of the N-terminal domain of Escherichia coli DnaB helicase was used as a model system to assess the stabilization against unfolding gained by covalent cyclization. Cyclization was achieved in vivo by formation of an amide bond between the N and C termini with the help of a split mini-intein. Linear and circular proteins were constructed to be identical in amino acid sequence. Mutagenesis of Phe102 to Glu rendered the protein monomeric even at high concentration. A difference in free energy of unfolding, DeltaDeltaG, between circular and linear protein of 2.3(+/-0.5) kcal mol(-1) was measured at 10 degrees C by circular dichroism. A theoretical estimate of the difference in conformational entropy of linear and circular random chains in a three-dimensional cubic lattice model predicted DeltaDeltaG=2.3 kcal mol(-1), suggesting that stabilization by protein cyclization is driven by the reduced conformational entropy of the unfolded state. Amide-proton exchange rates measured by NMR spectroscopy and mass spectrometry showed a uniform, approximately tenfold decrease of the exchange rates of the most slowly exchanging amide protons, demonstrating that cyclization globally decreases the unfolding rate of the protein. The amide proton exchange was found to follow EX1 kinetics at near-neutral pH, in agreement with an unusually slow refolding rate of less than 4 min(-1) measured by stopped-flow circular dichroism. The linear and circular proteins differed more in their unfolding than in their folding rates. Global unfolding of the N-terminal domain of E.coli DnaB is thus promoted strongly by spatial separation of the N and C termini, whereas their proximity is much less important for folding.     

Conformational stability of ribonuclease T1 determined by hydrogen-deuterium exchange.

The hydrogen-deuterium exchange kinetics of 37 backbone amide residues in RNase T1 have been monitored at 25, 40, 45, and 50 degrees C at pD 5.6 and at 40 and 45 degrees C at pD 6.6. The hydrogen exchange rate constants of the hydrogen-bonded residues varied over eight orders of magnitude at 25 degrees C with 13 residues showing exchange rates consistent with exchange occurring as a result of global unfolding. These residues are located in strands 2-4 of the central beta-pleated sheet. The residues located in the alpha-helix and the remaining strands of the beta-sheet exhibited exchange behaviors consistent with exchange occurring due to local structural fluctuations. For several residues at 25 degrees C, the global free energy change calculated from the hydrogen exchange data was over 2 kcal/mol greater than the free energy of unfolding determined from urea denaturation experiments. The number of residues showing this unexpected behavior was found to increase with temperature. This apparent inconsistency can be explained quantitatively if the cis-trans isomerization of the two cis prolines, Pro-39 and Pro-55, is taken into account. The cis-trans isomerization equilibrium calculated from kinetic data indicates the free energy of the unfolded state will be 2.6 kcal/mol higher at 25 degrees C when the two prolines are cis rather than trans (Mayr LM, Odefey CO, Schutkowski M, Schmid FX. 1996. Kinetic analysis of the unfolding and refolding of ribonuclease T1 by a stopped-flow double-mixing technique. Biochemistry 35: 5550-5561). The hydrogen exchange results are consistent with the most slowly exchanging hydrogens exchanging from a globally higher free energy unfolded state in which Pro-55 and Pro-39 are still predominantly in the cis conformation. When the conformational stabilities determined by hydrogen exchange are corrected for the proline isomerization equilibrium, the results are in excellent agreement with those from an analysis of urea denaturation curves.     

Comparison of the NMR solution structure with the X-ray crystal structure of the activation domain from procarboxypeptidase B

Summary The NMR solution structure of the activation domain isolated from porcine procarboxypeptidase B is compared with the X-ray crystal structure of the corresponding segment in the intact proenzyme. For the region of the polypeptide chain that has a well-defined three-dimensional structure in solution, i.e., the backbone atoms of residues 11–76 and 25 amino acid side chains in this segment that form a hydrophobic core in the activation domain, the root-mean-square distance between the two structures is 1.1 Å. There are no significant differences in average atom positions between the two structures, but only the NMR structure shows increased structural disorder in three outlying loops located along the same edge of the activation domain. These regions of increased structural disorder in the free domain coincide only partially with the interface to the enzyme domain in the proenzyme.     

Multistate folding of the villin headpiece domain

The villin headpiece (HP67) is a 67 residue, monomeric protein derived from the C-terminal domain of villin. Wild-type HP67 (WT HP67) is the smallest fragment of villin that retains strong in vitro actin-binding activity. WT HP67 is made up of two subdomains, which form a tightly packed interface. The C-terminal subdomain of WT HP67, denoted HP35, is rich in helical structure, folds in isolation, and has been widely used as a model system for folding studies. In contrast, very little is known about the folding of the intact villin headpiece domain. Here, NMR, CD and H/2H amide exchange measurements are used to follow the pH, thermal and urea-induced unfolding of WT HP67 and a mutant (HP67 H41Y) in which a buried conserved histidine in the N-terminal subdomain, His41, has been mutated to Tyr. Although most small proteins display two-state equilibrium unfolding, the results presented here demonstrate that unfolding of the villin headpiece is a multistate process. The presence of a folded N-terminal subdomain is shown to stabilize the C-terminal subdomain, increasing the midpoints of the thermal and urea-induced unfolding transitions and increasing protection factors for H/2H exchange. Histidine 41 has been shown to act as a pH-dependent switch in wild-type HP67: the N-terminal subdomain is unfolded when His41 is protonated, while the C-terminal subdomain remains folded irrespective of the protonation state of His41. Mutation of His41 to Tyr eliminates the segmental pH-dependent unfolding of the headpiece. The mutation stabilizes both domains, but folding is still multistate, indicating that His41 is not solely responsible for the unusual equilibrium unfolding behavior of villin headpiece domain.     

Understanding the folding and stability of a designed WW domain protein with replica exchange molecular dynamics simulations

WW domain proteins are usually regarded as simple models for understanding the folding mechanism of β-sheet. CC45 is an artificial protein that is capable of folding into the same structure as WW domain. In this article, the replica exchange molecular dynamics simulations are performed to investigate the folding mechanism of CC45. The analysis of thermal stability shows that β-hairpin 1 is more stable than β-hairpin 2 during the unfolding process. Free energy analysis shows that the unfolding of this protein substantially proceeds through solvating the smaller β-hairpin 2, followed by the unfolding of β-hairpin 1. We further propose the unfolding process of CC45 and the folding mechanism of two β-hairpins. These results are similar to the previous folding studies of formin binding protein 28 (FBP28). Compared with FBP28, it is found that CC45 has more aromatic residues in N-terminal loop, and these residues contact with C-terminal loop to form the outer hydrophobic core, which increases the stability of CC45. Knowledge about the stability and folding behaviour of CC45 may help in understanding the folding mechanisms of the β-sheet and in designing new WW domains.     

Investigation of the structural stability of the human acidic fibroblast growth factor by hydrogen-deuterium exchange

The conformational stability of the human acidic fibroblast growth factor (hFGF-1) is investigated using amide proton exchange and temperature-dependent chemical shifts, monitored by two-dimensional NMR spectroscopy. The change in free energy of unfolding (DeltaG(u)) of hFGF-1 is estimated to be 5.00 +/- 0.09 kcal.mol(-)(1). Amide proton-exchange rates of 74 residues (in hFGF-1) have been unambiguously measured, and the exchange process occurs predominately according to the conditions of the EX2 limit. The exchange rates of the fast-exchanging amide protons exposed to the solvent have been measured using the clean SEA-HSQC technique. The amide proton protection factor and temperature coefficient estimates show reasonably good correlation. Residues in beta-strands II and VI appear to constitute the stability core of the protein. Among the 12 beta-strands constituting the beta-barrel architecture of hFGF-1, beta-strand XI, located in the heparin binding domain, exhibits the lowest average protection factor value. Amide protons involved in the putative folding nucleation site in hFGF-1, identified by quench-flow NMR studies, do not represent the slow-exchanging core. Residues in portions of hFGF-1 experiencing high conformational flexibility mostly correspond to those involved in receptor recognition and binding.     

Equilibrium and kinetic folding of rabbit muscle triosephosphate isomerase by hydrogen exchange mass spectrometry

Unfolding and refolding of rabbit muscle triosephosphate isomerase (TIM), a model for (betaalpha)8-barrel proteins, has been studied by amide hydrogen exchange/mass spectrometry. Unfolding was studied by destabilizing the protein in guanidine hydrochloride (GdHCl) or urea, pulse-labeling with 2H2O and analyzing the intact protein by HPLC electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. Bimodal isotope patterns were found in the mass spectra of the labeled protein, indicating two-state unfolding behavior. Refolding experiments were performed by diluting solutions of TIM unfolded in GdHCl or urea and pulse-labeling with 2H2O at different times. Mass spectra of the intact protein labeled after one to two minutes had three envelopes of isotope peaks, indicating population of an intermediate. Kinetic modeling indicates that the stability of the folding intermediate in water is only 1.5 kcal/mol. Failure to detect the intermediate in the unfolding experiments was attributed to its low stability and the high concentrations of denaturant required for unfolding experiments. The folding status of each segment of the polypeptide backbone was determined from the deuterium levels found in peptic fragments of the labeled protein. Analysis of these spectra showed that the C-terminal half folds to form the intermediate, which then forms native TIM with folding of the N-terminal half. These results show that TIM folding fits the (4+4) model for folding of (betaalpha)8-barrel proteins. Results of a double-jump experiment indicate that proline isomerization does not contribute to the rate-limiting step in the folding of TIM.     

The residual pro-part of cathepsin C fulfills the criteria required for an intramolecular chaperone in folding and stabilizing the human proenzyme

The 13.5 kDa N-terminal part of the propeptide remains associated with mature cathepsin C after proteolytic activation and excision of the activation peptide. This residual pro-part, isolated from the recombinant enzyme, folds spontaneously and rapidly to a stable, compact monomer with secondary structure and stable tertiary interactions. Folding and unfolding kinetics of the residual pro-part with intact disulfides are complex, and accumulation of transient intermediates is observed. The cleaved form of the pro-part isolated from natural human cathepsin C also folds, suggesting that the intact form comprises two folding domains. The linkages of the two disulfide bridges have been established as 30-118 and 54-136 for the native enzyme. The native disulfide bonds can be re-formed from the fully reduced and denatured state by oxidative refolding, resulting in a domain that is spectroscopically indistinguishable from the original refolded residual pro-part. Both disulfides are solvent-exposed and can be reduced in the absence of denaturant. The reduced form retains most or all of the native tertiary structure and is only approximately 2 kcal.mol(-1) less stable than the oxidized form. It folds fast relative to the rate of biosynthesis, to the same conformation as the oxidized form. Folding and disulfide formation are sequential. These results indicate that the proenzyme folds sequentially in vivo and that the residual pro-part constitutes a rapidly and independently folding domain that stabilizes the mature enzyme. It thus fulfills the criteria required of an intramolecular chaperone. It may also be involved in stabilizing the tetrameric structure of the mature enzyme.     

Insights into conformation and dynamics of protein GB1 during folding and unfolding by NMR

Understanding protein stability requires characterization of structural determinants of the folded and unfolded states. Many proteins are capable of populating partially folded states under specific solution conditions. Occasionally, coexistence of the folded and an unfolded state under non- or mildly denaturing conditions can be observed by NMR, allowing us to structurally probe these states under identical conditions. Here we report on a destabilized mutant of the B1 domain of protein G (GB1) whose equilibrium unfolding was systematically investigated. Backbone amide residual dipolar couplings (RDCs), the tryptophan Nepsilon-H resonance and the amide nitrogen transverse relaxation rates (R2s) for varying pH values and different temperatures were measured. The backbone amide RDCs indicate that prior to complete unfolding, two melting hot spots are formed at the turn around T11, L12 and K13 and the N terminus of the helix at A24 and T25. The RDCs for the low pH, thermally unfolded state of GB1 are very small and do not indicate the presence of any native-like structure. Amide nitrogen transverse relaxation rates for GB1 in the folded state at different temperatures exhibit large contributions from exchange processes and the associated dynamics display considerable heterogeneity. Our data provide clear evidence for intermediate conformations and multi-state equilibrium un/folding for this GB1 variant.