Agricultural activities and land use in a Neolithic village around 3900 B.C.: Hornstaad Hörnle I A, Lake Constance, Germany

The archaeobotanical investigations in the Neolithic pile settlement of Hornstaad Hörnle I A, Lake Constance, Germany (3919–3905 cal B.C.) has answered many questions concerning agricultural activities and land use in Neolithic times. Very large carbonized stores of unthreshed cereals there showed that every household had 210–280 kg of naked wheat, einkorn, barley and emmer. As most of the wild plant remains in the cereal stores were from annual field weeds it is concluded that the arable land was cultivated continuously, probably for the whole duration of the settlement's occupation. No hints of short or long period fallows were found. Intensive soil treatment such as hoeing and digging is indicated by the rarity of perennial weeds. Because of the high quality of the cultivated soils, manuring was not necessary. The cereals were harvested high on the culm, and the harvest was first stored unthreshed, probably to dry it completely. Every house (family) had its own cereal stores with various cereals. Naked wheat and probably naked barley were threshed outside the settlement, while dehusking of einkorn and probably of emmer took place inside the village. Evidence of cereal cleaning, winnowing, sieving and sorting by hand were found. More than 700 carbonized remains of food products showed that porridge made from ground and shredded wheat was one of the main foods in the settlement.     

Archaeobotanical evidence for early agriculture at Ljubjansko barje (Ljubljana Moor), central Slovenia

Archaeobotanical evidence is presented for early agriculture at southwestern Ljubljansko barje (Ljubljana Moor), Slovenia. Archaeobotanical finds from the Eneolithic site at Hočevarica, and pollen records from an archaeological profile and from a nearby core were analysed. Numerous charred grains of cultivated cereals together with fossil seeds of Chenopodium sp. demonstrate that during the occupation of the settlement at Hočevarica, agriculture was well established. The majority of identified grains were of Hordeum vulgare (cultivated barley) and the rest were Triticum monococcum and T. turgidum ssp. dicoccum (cultivated wheats). Large amounts of cereal pollen and pollen of Chenopodiaceae also suggest strong human impact on the surrounding vegetation and landscape. Pollen and archaeobotanical data from Hočevarica show a large consistency in timing of the appearance of agriculture. In the pollen record from the core at Hočevarica a significant increase (up to 40%) in cereal pollen was detected at 4881 ± 50 B.P. (3770-3630 cal B.C.). Charred cereal grains were dated to 4800 ± 40 B.P. (3650-3520 cal B.C.). The grains of cultivated cereals from Hočevarica represent the oldest archaeobotanical evidence for agriculture in central Slovenia. Received February 18, 2002 / Accepted October 21, 2002     

Some aspects of Late Iron Age agriculture based on the first results of an archaeobotanical investigation at Corvin tér, Budapest, Hungary

Until now, very little was known about the agriculture of the Late Iron Age in Hungary. This paper describes the first results of an archaeobotanical examination of a late Iron Age, Celtic settlement in Budapest. It is the first systematically sampled and representatively investigated site of this time period in Hungary. Most of the samples come from different types of pits, which were subjectively sampled. The macrofossils were carbonised and, apart from many seeds and fruit stones, consisted mostly of charcoal. Among the seed remains both cultivated and wild species were present. The spectrum of cultivated plants was marked by a large number of cereals. The dominant cereals were Triticum spelta L. (spelt wheat) and Panicum millaceum L. (broomcorn millet), but also common were Avena sativa L., Avena sp. (oats), Triticum monococcum L. (einkorn), Hordeum vulgare L. (barley); Triticum aestivum/durum/turgidum L./Desf./L., incl. T. compactum Host. (bread wheat, including club wheat). Secale cereale L. (rye) and Triticum dicoccum (Schrank) Schübl. (emmer) were rare and seemed to be less important. The weeds and synanthropic vegetation, including ruderals, were represented by many taxa, and some of them also occurred in large amounts. The main cereals were sown as winter crops, judging from the rarely occurring of plants accompanying the cereals. Wild fruits contributed to the daily diet, too – as seen from the stones of Cornus mas (cornelian cherry), Crataegus sp. (hawthorn) and Prunus spinos (sloe, blackthorn). There were no finds of cultivated fruits. Received October 19, 2001 / Accepted January 30, 2002     

Trends in cereal cultivation in the Czech Republic from the Neolithic to the Migration period (5500 b.c.–a.d. 580)

This study summarises the current state of research on cultivated cereals from archaeological sites in the Czech Republic. We discuss the first appearances of particular cereals, their first proven cultivation (which usually happens much later) and their part within cereal husbandry. The questions of possible contamination of archaeobotanical material and problems concerning the identification of some cereal taxa are related to this topic. Trends in the importance of the cultivation of individual cereals are shown with generalized linear models (GLMs), based on an assemblage of 81 newly sampled sites. The results of GLM enable the division of the cereals into four groups characterised by: (1) species showing a gradual decrease in importance—Triticum monococcum (einkorn) and T. dicoccum (emmer), (2) species with progressively accumulating representation on sites during prehistory—Hordeum vulgare (common barley) and T. spelta (spelt), (3) those with a marked increase by the end of prehistory—T. aestivum/turgidum (naked wheat), Avena sp. (oats) and Secale cereale, (rye) and (4) a specific group including only Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet). There is a gradual increase in the diversity of cultivated cereals through time, starting with T. monococcum and T. dicoccum, followed by Hordeum, Panicum, T. spelta and T. aestivum/turgidum, Secale and Avena. Comparison of the chronological development of cereal cultivation in the area of the Czech Republic and surrounding countries shows a general correspondence with the trends observed in other parts of eastern-central Europe, although with some local specific differences.     

Development,identification, and characterization of blue-grained wheat- Triticum boeoticum substitution lines

Diploid wild einkorn wheat, Triticum boeoticum Boiss (AbAb, 2n = 2x = 14), is a wheat-related species with a blue aleurone layer. In this study, six blue-grained wheat lines...     

The presence of two-grained einkorn at the time of the Bandkeramik culture

At the end of the 6th millennium B. C. Triticum monococcum (einkorn) and Triticum dicoccum (emmer) were the main cereals of the early Neolithic Bandkeramik culture in central Europe. New archaeobotanical investigations at relevant Bandkeramik sites reveal the regular occurrence of morphologically two-grained einkorn. Some preliminary thoughts on the state of research and the possible origin of two-grained einkorn forms are presented here. Received January 7, 2002 / Accepted August 5, 2002 Correspondence to: Angela Kreuz     

Plant remains from a Bell Beaker site in Switzerland, and the beginnings of Triticum spelta (spelt) cultivation in Europe

Little is known of the archaeobotany of the Bell Beaker period. The village of Cortaillod/Sur les Rochettes-est in Switzerland is one of the first settlements of this date discovered so far; and one of the few sites where systematic archaeobotanical research could be undertaken. The 114 features, mainly postholes, produced 5080 charred plant macrofossils. The composition of the cereal spectrum was dominated by hulled wheats and notably by Triticum spelta (spelt). Other important components were Triticum dicoccum (emmer) and T. monococcum (einkorn), and probably also Hordeum (barley). The abundance of spelt represents a fundamental change compared with the plant finds from earlier sites of the region. The origin of this cereal species is discussed in the light of recent results of cytogenetic and molecular research.     

Late Celtic and early Roman plant remains from the oppidum of Bibracte, Mont Beuvray (Burgundy, France)

Two single assemblages of cereals and chaff from the oppidum Bibracte, (Burgundy, France), give evidence of cereal trade, food supply and crop processing in late Celtic and early Roman times. The first deposit consists mainly of Triticum dicoccon chaff which was buried in a wooden box near the sanctuary of La Terrasse. The second assemblage was a store of different wheats and barley excavated in a Roman cellar at the Pature du Couvent. The analyses of these finds are presented, and recent archaeobotanical research at Mont Beuvray is summarized.     

Evidence for plant exploitation and vegetation history from three Early Neolithic pre-pottery sites on the Euphrates (Syria)

Archaeobotanical results based on a limited number of samples from three aceramic sites dating from 9800 to 7800 B.P., which are under excavation in the valley of the Middle Euphrates, are discussed. The finds are presented simply by presence, and are compared to the contemporary vegetation and finds from similar sites. Carbonised plant remains recovered by flotation from levels dated to between 9800 and 9200 B.P. (Dja'de and Jerf al Ahmar) indicate that wild cereals (einkorn wheat, rye and barley) and pulses (lentils, pea and bitter vetch) were exploited. Other plants such as wild grasses, Pistacia, wild almond and oak, suggest that the local vegetation provided a rich diversity of resources. A study of possible weed taxa is being carried out in order to see whether this assemblage could be used to identify the cultivation of morphologically wild cereals for this period. Ninth millennium B.P. levels at Halula see the appearance of domestic crops such as emmer, naked wheat and barley, but wild-type cereals persist. The cultivars appear to have been introduced from elsewhere and later ninth millennium B.P. species include olive and flax. Ash, vine, maple, plane, alder and elm from the gallery forest, wild rye, wild einkorn, deciduous oak, wild almond, Pistacia, and Pyrus, from the hinterland, indicate cooler conditions.     

Nutrition and environment in medieval Serbia: charred cereal, weed and fruit remains from the fortress of Ras

This study presents the results of archaeobotanical examination of remains from the medieval complex of Ras in Serbia. The samples were collected from the fortress situated on the hilltop (Gradina) and from a settlement below (Podgradje) during the archaeological excavations of 1972–1984. They were taken primarily from the buildings containing charred cereals dating to the 12th and 13th centuries. The main staple was bread wheat, followed by rye. Grains of barley, oats, and millet were also present. The weeds, including ruderals, were represented by many species. Agrostemma githago (corn cockle) was an important contaminant of the cereal fields. Exceptional finds include a piece of charred round bread, the cereal content of a pot, and peach stone fragments. Previous information about the agriculture and food in medieval Serbia was based solely on documents that were either written after this period or that were not pertinent to the region. This study is the first direct evidence providing information about agriculture and food of the inhabitants of medieval Serbia.     

Crops and agriculture during the Iron Age and late antiquity in Cerdanyola del Vallès (Catalonia,Spain)

Various sites in the valley of the Sant Cugat stream in Cerdanyola del Vallès (Catalonia) were subject to systematic archaeobotanical sampling to obtain an overview of the crops and agriculture of the area during the Iron Age and late antiquity. In all cases, the most numerous taxa were crop plants. Among these, cereals were clearly predominant at all sites investigated, especially Hordeum vulgare var. vulgare (hulled barley) and Triticum aestivum/durum (bread or macaroni wheat), both in numbers and frequency. Other cereals, such as Triticum dicoccum (emmer) or Setaria italica (foxtail bristle-grass), were regularly present in considerably lower numbers but in fairly high frequencies. Pulses were much less numerous, although their presence increases in terms of frequency. Among them, clearly the best represented was Lens culinaris (lentil). The results show that the agriculture in the period considered was principally based on winter cereals, with a gradual substitution of hulled barley by bread/hard wheat, accompanied by other cereals of minor importance, led by Triticum dicoccum (emmer), and pulses. The appearance of Vitis (grapevine) in the Iberian period is one of the important characteristics of agriculture in the Iberian world. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Reconstruction of Late Pleistocene-Holocene palaeobathymetries from Ostracoda on the Tyrrhenian continental shelf

Quantitative analyses of ostracod assemblages from three cores recovered on the Tyrrhenian shelf (Gaeta and Salerno Gulfs) have been applied to construct palaeobathymetric curves. Palaeoclimatic curves obtained from planktonic foraminifera, calcareous nanoplankton, pteropods and pollen are available for the same cores, in addition to sedimentological, mineralogical, geochemical (δ¹⁸O, ¹⁴C, C/N, CaCO₃) and volcanological data with regard to the two cores from the Salerno Gulf. The palaeobathymetric curves reflect the climatic events through the Late Pleistocene-Holocene interval. The climatic events of the Last Glacial (and within it, the Last Glacial Maximum), the Late Glacial (with Oldest Dryas, Bølling-Allerød, Younger Dryas events) and Postglacial have been recognised. The palaeobathymetric curves are also in agreement with palaeoclimatic curves of planktonic assemblages and pollen.     

Plant use at an early Islamic merchant town in the West African Sahel: the archaeobotany of Essouk-Tadmakka (Mali)

We present archaeobotanical data from the early Islamic era (ca. a.d. 750–1400) obtained from excavations at Essouk-Tadmakka, an important trans-Saharan trading town site in the West African Sahel and an early centre of the Tuareg. The paper provides insight into a little researched area of arid zone medieval West Africa and presents practically the only substantive archaeobotanical evidence of the medieval Tuareg. The evidence firstly enables us to shed greater light on the Arabic historical references to traditions of wild cereal gathering at Essouk-Tadmakka. It also establishes the presence at the site of a range of important taxa, including pearl millet, date, balanites, cotton and linseed, as well as a host of other fruits, legumes (Fabaceae) and wild plants. Perhaps the most striking finding is the earliest and largest archaeobotanical data set for wheat in West Africa. In addition to providing the first archaeobotanically based discussion of Essouk-Tadmakka’s gathering traditions, agriculture, and grain importation, we also seek to highlight certain evidence for change over time in the archaeobotany recovered. The data seems to suggest that towards the end of the site’s occupation (ca. a.d. 1300) there was a shift to increased presence of fruit and legumes and more limited presence of cereals, and we attempt to relate this to wider shifts in Sahelian culture at this time.     

Plant husbandry and vegetation of early medieval Douai,northern France

This paper describes the results of the archaeobotanical examination of early medieval occupation deposits (8th to 11th centuries A.D.) at Douai, northern France. Carbonized as well as waterlogged seeds and fruits were recovered in great numbers. In addition to the macrofossil analyses, a palynological examination of occupation deposits was carried out. Bread wheat (Triticum aestivum) was the most common cereal, followed by rye (Secale cereale). Common oat (Avena sativa) and hulled barley (Hordeum vulgare) must have played a fairly modest role. In addition to cereals, field pea (Pisum sativum) was an important crop plant. Four types of plum (Prunus domestica) fruitstones are distinguished. Sweet cherry (Prunus avium) as well as sour cherry (P. cerasus) were cultivated. Other cultivated fruit trees included peach (Prunus persica) and medlar (Mespilus germanica). Sloe (Prunus spinosa) fruits, including those of the var. macrocarpa, were gathered from the wild. The palynological data suggest that the Douai area had virtually been cleared of forest. A comparison between pollen and seed proportions points to serious discrepancies between the macrofossil and microfossil plant records. Weeds of arable land (Secalietea, Polygono-Chenopodietalia) and vegetations of ruderal habitats (Sisymbrietalia, Artemisietalia vulgaris) are well represented. Molinietalia vegetations in the valley of the Scarpe river were probably exploited as hay meadows; good pasture land was provided by the Arrhenateretalia grasslands.     

The spread of agriculture in northern Iberia: new archaeobotanical data from El Mirón cave (Cantabria) and the open-air site of Los Cascajos (Navarra)

This paper presents archaeobotanical results from the Neolithic levels (5,300–4,000 b.c.) of two recently excavated sites in northern Iberia: El Mirón cave (Cantabria) and the open-air site of Los Cascajos (Navarra). A cereal grain from El Mirón is currently the earliest domesticated plant remain from this region. Despite the large number of samples examined, plant remains are few. They include basically cereals (Triticum monococcum, T. dicoccum, T. aestivum/durum/turgidum and Hordeum vulgare) and some nuts and fruits (Corylus avellana, Quercus sp., Vitis sp., etc.). The presence of free-threshing wheats at El Mirón opens up an interesting subject for debate, as until now naked wheats have been absent from the early Neolithic archaeobotanical record of the coastal Cantabrian region. Hulled wheat chaff is the main plant component from Los Cascajos, south of the Cantabrian Cordillera in Navarra, indicating waste from processing activities. The association of barley almost exclusively with both a burial and a ritual vase in Los Cascajos could be related specific rituals or ceremonies.     

Evidence of ‘new glume wheat’ from the Late Neolithic (Copper Age) of south-eastern Hungary (4th millennium cal. b.c.)

In 2000, remains of an unknown Triticum species—later named ‘new glume wheat’ (NGW)—were identified in the archaeobotanical material of Neolithic and Bronze Age Greek sites. The presence of NGW was later reported from several other locations across Europe, from the seventh to the first millennium cal. b.c. During the systematic archaeobotanical survey of the multiperiod site of Hódmez?vásárhely–Kopáncs I., Olasz-tanya (5310–2936 cal. b.c.) more than 2,000 cereal remains were recovered. During the morphological analyses, ten spikelet forks showed the distinctive traits of NGW, therefore morphometric analyses were conducted on the remains to reinforce the morphological identification. The results suggest that both approaches—morphological and morphometric—should be applied in parallel to securely separate the NGW remains from Triticum turgidum L. ssp. dicoccum (Schrank) Thell. (emmer) and T. monococcum L. ssp. monococcum (einkorn). All NGW glume bases were recovered from Late Copper Age features (3338–3264 cal. b.c.) of the settlement, which represent the Baden culture of the Great Hungarian Plain. Similarly to other Baden culture sites of the Carpathian Basin einkorn and emmer dominated the crop production of the settlement. The ratio of the NGW remains within the cereal assemblage was measured to be 0.48 %, which suggests that NGW did not have the status of a regular crop; still it may have been part of the accompanying weed flora of the cereal fields during the fourth millennium in the south-eastern Great Hungarian Plain landscape.     

The diet of Eneolithic (Copper Age, Fourth millennium cal b.c.) pile dwellers and the early formation of the cultural landscape south of the Alps: a case study from Slovenia

Analyses were performed of plant remains from the Late Neolithic (in Slovenian terminology corresponding to Eneolithic or Copper Age, ca. 4300–2300 b.c.) pile dwelling Hočevarica in the Ljubljansko barje (Ljubljana Moor), Slovenia. This settlement existed between ca. 3650 and 3550 cal b.c. Seeds, fruits, wooden piles, macroscopic charcoal and pollen from the cultural layers were analysed. The remains of domestic plants such as charred grains of Hordeum vulgare (barley), Triticum monococcum, T. dicoccum (einkorn and emmer wheat) and Papaver somniferum (poppy seeds), as well as seeds of weeds such as Chenopodium album-type indicate early cultivation in the area. In addition, numerous remains of nuts and berries, especially of Quercus sp., Cornus mas, Rubus fruticosus and Corylus avellana demonstrate that the gathering of wild plants was an important part of subsistence. Palaeoecological and archaeobotanical data from Hočevarica further suggest that cleared land was used for agriculture and pastures during the Neolithic, and that different wood was cut for construction and for fuel. The species assemblage from Hočevarica is very similar to those recovered from northern Alpine lake dwelling sites, however, several new taxa (e.g. Lathyrus sativus, Vicia sp.) appear in the assemblage. One of the most surprising finds is the seed of wild grape (Vitis vinifera ssp. sylvestris), which are the oldest on-site remains of grapevine from Slovenia.     

Early Holocene cultivation before domestication in northern Syria

Charred plant remains from the sites of Tell Qaramel, Jerf el Ahmar, Dja’de and Tell ‘Abr situated in northern Syria and dated to the tenth and ninth millennia cal b.c. demonstrate that a wide variety of wild pulses, cereals, fruits and nuts was exploited. Five lines of evidence suggest that cultivation was practised at three of the sites. (1) Wild einkorn, wild rye and lentils occur outside their natural habitats. (2) The founder crops barley, emmer and single-grained einkorn appear at different times. (3) An assemblage of weeds of cultivation was identified. (4) There is a gradual decrease in gathered plants such as small seeded grasses and Polygonum/Rumex. (5) Barley grains increase in breadth and thickness. Morphological domestication did not become established, perhaps because seed stock was regularly collected from wild stands. Charred rodent droppings indicate large-scale grain storage.     

Continuity and changes in plant resources during the Neolithic period in western Switzerland

The Neolithic and Bronze Age (4400-1570 B.C.) pile dwellings of Concise-sous-Colachoz on the shore of Lake Neuchatel (Canton of Vaud, western Switzerland), known as an archaeological site for more than 140 years, were recently re-investigated due to rescue excavations. Plant macrofossil analyses were done for several Neolithic occupation phases (3868-2440 B.C. the Cortaillod classique, Cortaillod moyen, Cortaillod tardif and Auvernier periods) with a focus on cereal remains, and additionally, archaeological deposits dating to the Cortaillod moyen culture (3710-3677 B.C.) were studied in detail. The preliminary study of cereal macrofossil remains from all the mentioned Neolithic phases show that the most important cereals were Triticum aestivum/durum/turgidum (naked wheat), T. monococcum (einkorn) and Hordeum vulgare (barley). The preferences for specific crops did obviously not alter significantly through time, but, extraordinarily, significant amounts of einkorn continued to be grown for at least 1400 years during the Neolithic period. Other cultivated plants were Pisum sativum (pea), Linum usitatissimum (flax), and Papaver somniferum (opium poppy). Additionally to the seeds, capsule fragments of opium poppy were found in the Cortaillod moyen deposits. These represent the first finds of uncharred capsule fragments in Europe. Compared with other central European sites, opium poppy was very common during the 38th and 37th cent. B.C. and obviously less appreciated towards the end of the Neolithic in the western part of Switzerland. In central Switzerland the trends seem different: there opium poppy was mainly used during the Late Neolithic period. This may be due to cultural differences within contemporaneous human societies. Wild fruits which were collected as plant resources during the Cortaillod moyen period included Prunus spinosa (sloe), Cornus sanguinea (dogwood), Malus sylvestris (apple), Rubus idaeus/caesius/fruticosus (raspberry/dewberry/blackberry), Fragaria vesca (wild strawberry), Rosa sp. (hip), Quercus sp. (acorn), Corylus avellana (hazelnut), and Fagus sylvatica (beechnut), among others. Compared with other Neolithic sites in westem and central Switzerland the local population of Concise-sous-Colachoz used few sloes, while dogwood fruits were in use throughout the Neolithic period at Lake Neuchatel. Received September 4, 2001 / Accepted May 13, 2002     

A novel method to induce direct somatic embryogenesis,secondary embryogenesis and regeneration of fertile green cereal plants

A direct somatic embryogenesis and secondary embryogenesis protocol was developed for seven cereal species, thus providing a new vista for in vitro plant genetic transformation or propagation. This paper describes a novel process that has been successfully developed for efficient regeneration of a wide range of cereal species and genotypes. This tissue culture and regeneration system does not require formation of callus tissues and takes approximately 2 months to complete, shorter than any of the currently available systems requiring 3-4 months. Rapid induction of direct somatic embryogenesis in barley (Hordeum vulgare), common wheat (Triticum aestivum), durum wheat (T. durum) and derived amphiploids, wild wheat (T. monococcum and T. urartu), rye (Secale cereale) and oats (Avena sativa) was induced from excised immature scutellum on DSEM medium. Newly developed globular embryos were cultured on SEM medium for a second cycle of embryogenesis followed by germination (GEM medium) and regeneration of embryos into normally growing green and fertile plants. In vitro techniques to induce direct somatic embryogenesis, secondary embryogenesis and plant regeneration from these cereals require a specific sequence of defined media and controlled environments. The sequence and the timing of the media used, as well as their hormonal composition and balance are critical aspects of this process. The organic and mineral compositions of these media are not new but are important for supporting and sustaining rapid growth of the tissues.