Acid rain — perspectives on lake recovery

During the 1970‘s and 1980‘s, the acidification of surface waters by atmospherically deposited sulphur became a major international concern. Large sulphur emission control programs were implemented in Europe and North America with the expectation that many affected aquatic ecosystems would recover. Because of a variety of factors, these positive expectations have been slow to be realized. Only limited evidence of the chemical recovery of acid lakes has emerged from areas other than the Sudbury, Canada region, where sulphur emission reductions were particularly large. Lake response models indicate that when current sulphur emission control strategies in Europe and North America are fully implemented, many lakes will still be acid-damaged even though substantial overall improvements in lake chemistry are expected. An increasing body of evidence indicates that substantial biological recovery, among many groups of organisms,can be expected when chemical conditions improve in lakes. Not all species, however, are capable of unassisted recovery and some lakes can pose biological or physical barriers to colonizers. Thus, stocking may be an important element in management strategies for the restoration of some recovering lakes. Communities in recovered lakes may not achieve pre disturbance conditions, but establishment of typical communities appears to be a reasonable recovery target. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Seasonal coupling between phyto- and bacterioplankton in a sand pit lake (Créteil lake,France)

Phyto- and bacterioplankton biomass and activity were simultaneously measured during the course of one year in the shallow Créteil Lake (France).Phytoplankton was dominated, during the whole year, by small-sized organisms (10 to 25 µm). Bacteria were in a majority small coccoids (<0.3 µm). Phyto -and bacterioplankton abundances averaged respectively 3.3 × 10⁶ cells l^–1 and 6 × 10⁹ cells l^–1.The phasing of the activity and biomass periods suggest a close coupling between phyto- and bacterioplankton. There were two distinct periods of high activity and biomass. Maximal values were observed in summer but an early increase occurred also in winter. Low or undetectable phytoplankton excretion rates, when heterotrophic activity was maximum, indicated a bacterial uptake of up to 100% of the released algal products during the incubation period. Heterotrophic uptake measurements with both glucose and amino acids revealed a seasonal change of the substrates in the lake, glucose uptake being associated more with the maximum activity of the algae, while the amino acids uptake was relatively higher during their decline.The maximal photosynthetic rate averaged 21.5 mgC m^–3 h^–1 and mean Vmax values were 0.056 and 0.050 mgC m^–3 h^–1 respectively for glucose and amino acids uptake.     

How do paedomorphic newts cope with lake drying?

Paedomorphosis, in which adult individuals retain larval traits, is widespread in newts and salamanders. Most evolutionary models predict the maintenance of this life-history trait in favourable aquatic habitats surrounded by hostile terrestrial environments. Nevertheless, numerous ponds inhabited by paedomorphic individuals are unpredictable and temporary. In an experimental framework, I showed that paedomorphic newts were able to metamorphose and thus survive in the absence of water. However, the mere decrease of water level or the life space do not seem to induce metamorphosis in paedomorphs. On the contrary, drying up induces almost all individuals to move on land and after that to colonize other aquatic sites located nearby. Such terrestrial migrations allow survival in drying conditions without metamorphosis as long as the distances of terrestrial migration are short. These results are consistent with the presence of paedomorphs in drying ponds and are in favor of classic optimality models predicting metamorphosis in unfavorable environments.     

The Norwegian reference lake ecosystem, Øvre Heimdalsvatn

The subalpine lake, Øvre Heimdalsvatn and its catchment, situated in the mountains of southern Norway, has been the subject of extensive ecosystem studies over the last 50 years covering a wide range of disciplines. The lake is located at 1,088 m a.s.l., has an area of 0.78 km², a maximum depth of 13 m, and a catchment area of 23.6 km². It lies more or less on the limit of the birch forest, while the catchment extends up over 1,800 m a.s.l. and into the high alpine zone. The valley is little influenced by human activity and there is no permanent habitation, although the area is used for grazing of domestic livestock during summer. Otherwise the lake and its catchment have always been important for fish and game. The catchment also received major radionuclide fallout from the Chernobyl accident in 1986. The studies include Quaternary history, the development of algorithms for remote sensing of snow conditions, long-term changes in lake ice cover and temperature, the zooplankton and benthic communities, as well as the uptake of Chernobyl radionuclides and mercury by the biota. The consequences of the introduction of the European minnow (Phoxinus phoxinus) on the benthos, zooplankton and the brown trout (Salmo trutta) have also been investigated. The lake and its catchment are widely used in university teaching and thesis work. On account of the substantial knowledge base, Øvre Heimdalsvatn is well suited to long-term monitoring.     

Comparing δ13C among littoral foodwebs using lake DOC

Compared to marine research, there have been few attempts to search for general predictive patterns in stable isotope ratios across lakes. Previous work has determined, however, that the ¹³C values of both littoral epilithon and pelagic zooplankton decrease with increasing concentration of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) in boreal forest lakes. Despite a substantial contribution of allochthonous carbon to fuelling littoral foodwebs in northwestern Ontario, a survey of 12 lakes showed that enough autochthonous carbon must be assimilated by leeches (Macrodella decora, Percymoorensis mannoratis) to demonstrate inverse relationships between leech ¹³C and lake DOC. Establishing such baseline empirical relationships between limnological variables and organism ¹³C will enable inter-lake comparisons, and is a maturing direction in freshwater isotope ecology.     

Spatial heterogeneity in whole lake sediments — towards a loading estimate

Studies of nutrient loadings, to shallow culturally eutrophied Alberta lakes, suggest internal inputs are significant. In this regard, estimation of bottom sediment P loads to Lake Wabamun (80 km², 5.5 m depth) were examined. Initially we determined the spatial variability in Total Organic Content (% loss on ignition) and Total Phosphorus, as indicators. Phosphorus fractions and biologically available phosphorus (BAP) were measured at specific stations. These data showed a very uniform distribution in sediment type with a Total Organic Content of 40.6 ± 3.3 (95% C.L.) at the west end, gradually declining to 26.3 ± 0.9 at the east end. Transects performed at routine monitoring stations indicate the representativeness of each station, e.g., station 2, 40.8 ± 1.3 (10 sites). One explanation of this uniformity is provided from²¹⁰Pb analysis of shallow cores which indicate mixing to a depth of 16 cm. This is also thought to explain the mechanics of P loading to the water phase. Finally, Total Organic Content relates well to BAP (r² = 0.80). It is hoped that this simple technique may well permit more precise extrapolation to whole lake BAP estimates at least on this lake.     

Actinomycetes in lake muds: dormant spores or metabolically active mycelium?

Homogenization and ultrasonication experiments on samples of lake muds indicated that Micromonospora strains were present as a mixture of mycelium and spores. In contrast, strains of streptomycetes and nocardioforms appeared to be in the form of arthrospores or fragmentation spores respectively. Micromonospora strains originally isolated from lakes were able to grow in both native and enriched muds incubated in the laboratory. Numbers of streptomycetes and nocardioforms did not increase in these muds and are presumed to be relatively inactive in this habitat. We postulate that Micromonospora strains have an active role in the lacustrine environment as well as in soil.     

Does metazooplankton regulate the ciliate community in a shallow eutrophic lake?

1. As grazers on picoplankton and nanoplankton, planktonic ciliates form an important link in pelagic food webs. Ciliate communities may be controlled by predation by metazooplankton. In eutrophic systems, however, where the number of large crustaceans is often low, the mechanisms that regulate ciliate dynamics have rarely been described. 2. We conducted an enclosure experiment with natural and screened (145 μm) summer plankton communities to investigate the effect of the small‐sized crustacean zooplankton on ciliate community structure and the microbial loop in a shallow eutrophic lake. 3. The removal of the larger fraction of crustaceans initiated a decrease in total ciliate abundance. At the community level, we observed a substantial increase in large‐sized predacious ciliates (>100 μm) and a simultaneous decrease in the abundance of smaller ciliates (<20–40 μm) that were mostly bacterivores and bacterio‐herbivores. The compositional shift in the ciliate community, however, did not cascade down to the level of bacteria and edible phytoplankton.     

Seasonal periodicity of planktonic desmids in oligotrophic lake Grane Langsø, Denmark

60 desmids were identified from plankton samples collected during 20 years, bimonthly, or monthly in 5 of the years. Only 5 desmids were perennial, performing cell divisions in a frozen lake at PAR at only 5 cal cm ^–2 day ^–1, below ice-cover. The greatest number of desmids per 100 ml lake water was found in September; it never exceeded 150. Owing to a concentration of free CO₂ of only 0.02 mM l^–1 and a HCO _inf3 ^sup– concentration of 0.002 mM l^–1 the densities of desmid cells were often smaller than 1 cell per 100 ml lake water. A density of 1 cell per 1 ml was attained only by Staurastrum longipes, a desmid showing temporal variation. The relation of the compound phytoplankton quotient to two components of the CO₂-system is discussed. Three new taxa are described: Staurastrum brachiatum Ralfs var. bicorne n. var., Staurastrum thomassonii n.sp. and Xanthidium antilopaeum Kütz. f. bimaculatum n.f..     

Sysmäjärvi — a lake polluted by mining waste-water

Lake Sysmäjärvi is located inside the municipal boundary of Outokumpu in North Karelia, Finland. Since 1928 metalliferous, and at a later stage highly acid waste-water, has been discharged into the lake. Neutralization of the lake water by liming was introduced, and by the end of 1966 the pH of the water had become neutral to alkaline. Two sediment cores (0.5 m and 5 m long, respectively) were analyzed for pollen, diatoms, loss-on-ignition, organic carbon, Fe, Cu, Ni, Pb, Zn and Hg. The maximum concentrations of organic matter and heavy metal content occur 30 cm below the sediment surface. Evidence of the liming and of accelerated eutrophication appear close to the surface of the sediment (0–10 cm), indicated by an increase in Nitzschia plana.     

Experimental revegetation of the regulated lake Ontojärvi in northern Finland

Water level regulation causes large-scale ecological changes in the littoral areas of lakes in northern Finland. If the summertime water level is raised, intensive erosion processes begin, causing a sudden decline in shore vegetation. The need for shore protection is obvious in areas of high recreational value. At lake Ontojärvi, planting experiments with littoral helophytes and bushes were carried out during the years 1990–92. All the experiments were carried out in the eroded sandy areas, which were partly protected by mechanical barriers. Several plant species were planted on the shore which had been treated with different peat mixtures, etc. The frequencies of the different species were followed monthly. After the first summer, the average survival rates were about 45 % due to the drying of seedlings. A rapid decrease in the survival rates took place during the high water level period in 1991 at which point only 20% of the planted individuals were alive. The best results were obtained for the helophyte Carex rostrata Stokes, of which 30% had survived erosion. Tall willows (Salix phylicifolia L.) were also erosion-resistant with a survival rate of 80%.     

Rotifer–crustacean interactions in a pseudokarstic lake: influence of hydrology

Zooplankton abundance was related to hydrological and environmental variables in a hydrologically dynamic lake fed by a pseudokarstic aquifer. The study period (2002–2006) in Lake Tovel covered different hydrological situations with water residence time (WRT) having the lowest values in 2002 and the highest values in 2003. WRT was negatively correlated with silica concentrations and algal biovolume. Furthermore, the biovolume of small algae was highest in spring and summer, while large algae did not show any pattern. In multivariate analysis, high abundance of crustacean species in autumn and winter was positively related to WRT and negatively to algal biovolume, while high abundance of rotifer species in spring and summer was negatively related to WRT and positively to algal biovolume. With the exception of Keratella cochlearis and Gastropus stylifer, rotifers showed a pattern of crustacean avoidance, and three groups were distinguished: (i) Ascomorpha ecaudis and Polyarthra dolichoptera, (ii) Asplanchna priodonta and Synchaeta spp., and (iii) Filinia terminalis and Keratella quadrata. These groups were associated with different food sources and depths. We suggest that WRT influenced the rotifer–crustacean relationship by wash-out effects and competition for food resources. The dynamics of single rotifer species were attributable to specific feeding requirements and adaptations. In summary, WRT determined the platform for abiotic and biotic interactions that influenced population dynamics of crustaceans and rotifers.     

The epiphytic algae on floating macrophytes of a Paraná river floodplain lake

Summary We describe the composition and seasonal (1993–1994) changes of epiphytic algae on the submerged parts of macrophytes (Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms-Loubach, Salvinia rotundifolia Willd., Lemna gibba L. and Ricciocarpos natans (L.) Corda) of a shallow lake from Entre Rios province, Argentina (33°48S, 58°57W), permanently connected to the Paraná river.In total, 136 algal taxa were identified: 57 Bacillariophyceae, 31 Chlorophyta, 31 Cyanophyceae, 13 Tribophyceae and 4 Euglenophyceae, all of them characterized by wide geographic distributions. Infertile filaments of Oedogonium spp., Zygnema spp., Spirogyra spp. and Mougeotia spp. (Chlorophyta) dominated the assemblages throughout the year. The diatoms Eunotia bilunaris var. bilunaris, E. monodon var. monodon and two varieties of Gomphonema augur reached high relative frequencies. Characiopsis ettliana and Ch. falx var. cecoalensis (Tribophyceae) were consistently present in low numbers.Multivariate analyses did not reveal major compositional dissimilarities between the four substrates surveyed. Seasonal changes in the community composition were chiefly due to the presence of thychoepiphytic species in association with the interchange of river and lake waters. It is concluded that the pattern of seasonal succession is governed by a complex interaction between hydrometric and seasonal changes.     

Estimating oxygen exchange across the air–water interface of a hypereutrophic lake

Patterns of estimates of oxygen flux (J) across the air–water interface of hypereutrophic Onondaga Lake, NY, U.S.A., are characterized for time scales ranging from diel to seasonal for an 8-month period. The analysis is supported by a high frequency (most often hourly) monitoring program, conducted with a robotic buoy, that included measurements of dissolved oxygen (DO), temperature, and fluorometric chlorophyll a in the lake's surface waters, vertical profiles of DO through the epilimnion, and wind speed and solar radiance. The magnitude and direction of J is demonstrated to vary dramatically at diel, day-to-day, and seasonal time scales. Thus, large errors in estimates of J may result from extrapolating flux calculations made from short-term data to longer time periods. The variations in J were driven by variations in metabolic activity and meteorology, and were mediated by departures from equilibrium DO concentrations and wind-driven turbulence. Extended periods of high J values are shown to coincide with intervals of large departures from equilibrium DO concentrations, but day-to-day differences are driven mostly by variations in wind. A distinct diel pattern of J estimates is manifested for average conditions, with substantially higher J values during daylight hours. This pattern reflects the common diel patterns of the drivers of both higher DO oversaturation and wind speed over those hours. It is demonstrated that the magnitude of J is substantial relative to net changes in the epilimnetic DO pool, and thus must be accommodated accurately in estimates of primary production and community respiration that are to be based on diel monitoring of DO in the water columns of productive lakes.     

Is roach herbivory preventing re-colonization of submerged macrophytes in a shallow lake?

Hydrobiologia - Re-establishing a stable submerged vegetation is considered an important tool to restore shallow eutrophic lakes. Enhanced turbidity and sediment re-suspension as well as grazing by...     

Sediment resuspension: rescue or downfall of a thermally stratified eutrophic lake?

The aim of this study was to estimate the effect of sediment resuspension, a common phenomenon in many lakes, on the phosphorus budget of a eutrophicated lake. We used two different approaches, mass balance calculations and spatially comprehensive resuspension measurements, to determine the level of phosphorus loading from which rehabilitation action is started in a dimictic north temperate lake. The effect of resuspension was assumed to be significant, since it often is a governing process for cycling of material in lakes. Internal loading was multifold to that of external loading as determined by the budget calculation. Spatially comprehensive sedimentation and resuspension measurements were necessary, since deep site versus spatially comprehensive measurements had a marked difference in their results. Resuspension of P slightly exceeded the internal loading assessed by budget calculations and thereby proved its significance as a governing in-lake process that influences P cycling strongly. The shallow areas were of importance, since most of the total P load originated from there. The fate of P after resuspension depends on the retention capacity of resuspended particles in addition to prevailing biological and physico-chemical conditions. Therefore, sediment resuspension can either strengthen or diminish internal nutrient load and the processes of the shallow zones are of importance.     

Secchi disk — chlorophyll relationships in a lake with highly variable phytoplankton biomass

In meseutrophic Lake Constance mean euphotic phytoplankton chlorophyll concentrations vary about 100-fold over the year. Concomitant fluctuations in euphotic depth (Z_eu) and Secchi depth (Z_s) are related to each other in a non-linear fashion that as a rough approximation can be expressed by Z_eu 5 Z_s.Secchi depth is to a great extent a function of beam attenuation of light which depends on the inherent optical properties of the water and is highly sensitive to light scattering from particles. Euphotic depth, by contrast, is a function of the vertical light attenuation coefficient which also depends on absorption and scattering, but is less sensitive to the latter than beam attenuation. Algal cells both absorb and scatter light and therefore influence Secchi depth and euphotic depth, however, in different fashions.Whenever the lake is clear due to scarce phytoplankton, scattering is small and beam attenuation only exceeds vertical light attenuation by a relatively small factor. As a consequence, the ratio of euphotic depth to Secchi depth is small (1.5–2.5). When the lake is turbid due to high algal density, enhanced scattering from algal cells and detrital particles causes beam attenuation to rise more than vertical light attenuation, thus leading to high ratios of euphotic depth to Secchi depth (3–5). The relatively close relationships between Secchi depth and chlorophyll in Lake Constance are due to (1) high influence of chlorophyll concentration on water transparency, (2) co-variation of phytoplankton and other suspended particles, and (3) limited variation of cellular chlorophyll contents.     

Chlorophyll–nutrient relationships of different lake types using a large European dataset

In Europe there is a renewed focus on relationships between chemical determinands and ecological impact as a result of the Water Framework Directive (WFD). In this paper we use regression analysis to examine the relationship of growing season mean chlorophyll a concentration with total phosphorus and total nitrogen using summary data from over 1,000 European lakes. For analysis, lakes were grouped into types with three categories of mean depth, alkalinity and humic content. The lakes were also divided into broad geographic regions covering Atlantic, Northern, Central/Baltic and for some types the Mediterranean areas of Europe. Chlorophyll a was found to be significantly related to both total phosphorus and total nitrogen, although total phosphorus was almost always found to be the best predictor of chlorophyll. Different nutrient chlorophyll relationships were found for lakes according to mean depth and alkalinity, although no significant effect of geographic region or humic content was found for the majority of lake types. We identified three groups of lakes with significantly different responses. Deep lakes had the lowest yield of chlorophyll per unit of nutrient, low and moderate alkalinity shallow lakes the highest and high alkalinity lakes were intermediate. We recommend that the regression models provided for these three lake groups should be used for lake management in Europe and discuss the limitations of such models.     

What factors control planktonic ciliates during summer in a highly eutrophic lake?

A mesocosm experiment in 24 enclosures (6 m³) started at the end of June 1996 in a highly eutrophic shallow lake, Lake Köyliönjärvi (SW Finland). The original factorial design with nutrient, fish and macrophyte treatments was lost due to strong winds causing leakages. However, after the walls were made leak-proof again on July 11, the planktonic communities developed in divergent ways. On July 31 there was a tenfold variation in total crustacean biomass among the enclosures and the lake (40.2–417.5 g C l^–1), and chlorophyll a varied from 9.5 to 67.0 g l^–1. Here, the single-day data on the 25 planktonic communities is analysed by means of correlation and factor analysis in order to identify factors controlling the protozoans, with particular emphasis on ciliates. The data set comprised: total phosphorus, nitrogen, chlorophyll, bacteria, autotrophic picoplankton, heterotrophic flagellates, abundance and species composition of ciliates, phytoplankton and metazooplankton. The results indicate that although the total ciliate abundance (ranging from 16.2 to 95.0 ind l^–1) was controlled by food resources, the observed differences in ciliate community structure could be attributed partly to differential predation by metazooplankton. The effect of Daphnia cucullata, the dominant daphnid cladoceran, was stronger than that of other metazoans.     

Exploring lake ecosystems: hierarchy responses to long‐term change?

Shifts in climate regime have provoked substantial trophic‐ and species‐dependent changes within ecosystems. With growing concerns of present global warming, we examined potential lake ecosystem responses, natural hierarchy responses (i.e. immediate responses at lower system levels as opposed to delayed responses at higher system levels), and possible shifts among abiotic (physics, nutrients) and biotic (phytoplankton, zooplankton) system components. Specifically, we analyzed decadal data collected from Müggelsee, a lake in Berlin, Germany, for climate‐induced abiotic and biotic changes, their timing and type, and classified them as abrupt permanent, gradual permanent, abrupt temporary, or monotonic. We further categorized variable changes as a function of system hierarchy, including lake physics (ice, temperature, stratification), nutrients (phosphorus, nitrogen, silicate), plankton, and levels of integration (i.e. species, taxonomic groups, and total plankton). Contrary to current theory, data suggest abrupt responses did not occur in a hierarchy‐dependent manner, nor was a clear pattern observed among functional system‐based categories. Abrupt permanent changes were the most prominent response pattern observed, suggesting they may be driven by large‐scale climatic oscillations and by surpassed thresholds, as noted in previous case studies. Gradual changes coincided with affected abiotic parameters spanning an expansive time range; for example, climatic effects in spring preceded changes in nutrient limitation. Variables displaying no long‐term changes pointed to compensation processes caused by, e.g., simultaneously acting forces of warming trends and climate‐independent changes in trophic state. Nevertheless, the complexity of response patterns at the single system level manifested clear chronological regime shifts in abiotic and biotic parameters in spring and, to a lesser extent, in summer. With regard to projected global warming, the majority of currently unaffected system levels may face impending thermal thresholds, achievement of which would result in an accelerated shift in ecosystem state.