Biological significance of piRNA in liver cancer: a review

Abstract

Liver cancer is one of the most common and deadly cancers in the world. In recent years, non-coding RNA has been a hot topic in liver cancer research. piRNAs (PIWI-interacting RNAs) are a new type of small non-coding RNA, which are formed by the PIWI proteins interacting with RNA. The latest research shows that piRNA and PIWI proteins are abnormally expressed in various cancers, including pancreatic, colorectal, breast, etc. piRNA plays an important regulatory role in liver cancer. In this review, we discuss the biological function of piRNAs and new progress in the development of liver cancer, and new targets and ideas for piRNA and PIWI proteins in the diagnosis and treatment of liver cancer.     

Brassicales: an update on chromosomal evolution and ancient polyploidy

Brassicales comprise 17 families, c. 400 genera and more than 4600 species. Despite the mustard family (crucifers, Brassicaceae) continuing to be the subject of intensive research, the remaining 16 families are largely under studied. Here I summarize the available data on chromosome number and genome size variation across Brassicales in the context of a robust phylogenetic framework. This analysis has revealed extensive knowledge gaps in karyological data for non-crucifer and species-rich families in particular (i.e., Capparaceae, Cleomaceae, Resedaceae and Tropaeolaceae). A parsimonious interpretation of the combined chromosomal and phylogenetic data set suggests that the ancestral pre-Brassicales genome had 9 or 14 chromosome pairs, later multiplied by the At-β (beta) whole-genome duplication (WGD) to n?=?18 or 28. This WGD was followed by post-polyploid diploidization marked by diversification to 12 or 13 families and independent decreases in chromosome numbers. Family-specific WGDs are proposed to precede the diversification of Capparaceae, Resedaceae and Tropaeolaceae.     

Progressive polyploidy in mouse liver following repeated hepatectomy]

Mouse liver regeneration after partial hepatectomy results in sharp changes of ploidy classes towards the increase of high ploidy cells and the decrease low ploidy ones. These changes retain during three months. Each following partial hepatectomy (till 3 times) intensifies the hepatocyte polyploidy with appearance of cells with 32--64 ploidy nuclei. The cell polyploidization stimulated by repeated regenerations is similar to that observed in normal postnatal liver growth.     

Aneuploidy,polyploidy and ploidy reversal in the liver

Polyploidy has been described in the liver for over 100 years. The frequency of polyploid hepatocytes varies by age and species, but up to 90% of mouse hepatocytes and approximately 50% of human hepatocytes are polyploid. In addition to alterations in the entire complement of chromosomes, variations in chromosome copy number have been recently described. Aneuploidy in the liver is pervasive, affecting 60% of hepatocytes in mice and 30–90% of hepatocytes in humans. Polyploidy and aneuploidy in the liver are closely linked, and the ploidy conveyor model describes this relationship. Diploid hepatocytes undergo failed cytokinesis to generate polyploid cells. Proliferating polyploid hepatocytes, which form multipolar spindles during cell division, generate reduced ploidy progeny (e.g., diploid hepatocytes from tetraploids or octaploids) and/or aneuploid daughters. New evidence suggests that random hepatic aneuploidy can promote adaptation to liver injury. For instance, in response to chronic liver damage, subsets of aneuploid hepatocytes that are differentially resistant to the injury remain healthy, regenerate the liver and restore function. Future work is required to elucidate the mechanisms regulating dynamic chromosome changes in the liver and to understand how these processes impact normal and abnormal liver function.     

Genetic characterization of an arctic zooplankter: insights into geographic polyploidy

Species of Bosmina from the temperate regions of North America and Europe are diploid and reproduce by cyclical parthenogenesis. By contrast, this study provides evidence that the dominant bosminid taxon in High Arctic lakes reproduces by obligate parthenogenesis and is a polyploid derived from interspecific hybridization. Sinobosmina liederi, a species common in temperate North America, is likely to have been one parent of these hybrids, but the other parent is unknown. As neither parent was detected in the Arctic, it seems unlikely that the hybrid clones that now occupy arctic lakes were synthesized locally. Most habitats contained only one or two clones, despite a total of 38 clones in the region, suggesting that priority effects have been important in restricting diversity within single lakes. The high regional diversity of arctic bosminids could reflect either repeated hybridization between the parent taxa or the genetic instability of newly formed polyploid lineages. These processes would produce hybrid polyploids that are considerably more diverse than their sexual parent taxa, and this difference in genetic diversity may confer an advantage to the polyploid biotype. As many zooplankton taxa from the arctic possess genetic characteristics similar to those of bosminids, these processes may provide a general explanation for the widespread occurrence of polyploids in the Arctic.     

Ecological significance of polyploidy in high mountain plants and plant communities

The frequency of diploids and polyploids in the flora and plant communities of the Temnosmre?inová dolina valley (High Tatras) and the valley dolina Siedmich prameňov (Belianské Tatry mts.) is discussed in connection with environmental conditions and life forms.     

Synthesis of an hypothesis advocating a prominent role for the thyroid hormones in mammalian liver cell proliferation in vivo

This review summarizes the accumulating evidence supporting a conspicuous role for the thyroid hormones and/or hepatic levels of nuclear T3-binding sites in hepatocytes proliferation in vivo. The hepatic nuclear binding sites for the iodothyronines were first described in 1972. Comparing a number of observations made on the hepatic levels of these nuclear T3-binding sites with models of liver cell proliferation, a striking relationship is now beginning to emerge. It seems that in many hepatomitogenic systems the levels of these nuclear binding sites become markedly reduced preceding the onset of enhanced DNA replication and mitosis. The hepatomitogenic systems described which do not involve a lowering in the levels of these nuclear binding sites appear to be predicated on raising the circulating levels of the thyroid hormones per se. How these two seemingly anomalous events can both produce the same proliferative effect on liver cells is not entirely clear. Equally vague as yet are the discrete genetic consequences of these proliferative initiators which lead to hepatocyte hyperplasia. There is some evidence that this proliferative controlling effect on the thyroid hormones on hepatocytes may also extent, in part, to hepatoma cells.     

Distribution, mechanisms and evolutionary significance of clonality and polyploidy in weevils

Abstract 1 Genetical mtDNA relationships of 41 taxa of weevils were examined using cladistics. Ingroup taxa belong to Otiorhynchus scaber and O. nodosus and outgroup comparison was made with O. singularis. All three species are minor forest pests. 2 Otiorhynchus scaber specimens are either diploid sexuals or diploid, triploid and tetraploid clones, from two different populations (Slovenia and Austria) that belong to two different evolutionary lineages. Otiorhynchus nodosus specimens are tetraploid clones. Both species show geographical parthenogenesis, as do many other Otiorhynchus species. 3 Mitochondrial data indicate that O. nodosus clones are more closely related to Slovenian sexuals of O. scaber than these are to sexuals from Austria. It also shows that almost all clones of O. scaber collected in one of the two regions where sexuals are found are more closely related to sexuals from the other region. 4 Three different hypotheses that may explain the distribution of O. scaber, mechanisms important for the evolution of the clones and implications of the presence of Wolbachia are discussed. 5 We conclude that parthenogenesis is likely to be linked to hybridization in O. scaber and that hybridization events between ancestors of O. nodosus and O. scaber are the probable cause of the presence of O. nodosus in the ingroup. We also find that polyploid clones are superior colonizers compared to sexuals and diploid clones, in O. scaber. 6 The results suggest that systems where both sexuals and clones exist are more complex than previously suggested. The mapping of genetic variation in clonal complexes and the tracing of clonal origins may be useful in pest management.     

The development of polyploidy in two classes of rat liver nuclei

Two classes of nuclei from livers of Sprague-Dawley rats were isolated, one pelleting in 2.3 M sucrose (H nuclei) and the second class sedimenting through 1.6 and 1.8 M sucrose and banding at the 1.8/2.3 M sucrose interface (L nuclei) of a three-step discontinuous gradient. In younger animals, the L nuclear fraction was the major fraction, but the percentage of nuclei found in the L fraction decreased as the animals grew. Nuclear ploidy was determined by flow microfluorometry using propidium iodide as a DNA stain. Both the H and L nuclear fractions contained diploid, tetraploid and octaploid nuclei; but the degree of polyploidy was greater in the H fraction. Concomitant with the change in distribution of nuclei between the H and L fractions with increasing age was a progressive increase in the degree of polyploidy in the H fraction. Polyploidy did not increase linearly with age in the H nuclear fraction but increased in cycles marked by large changes in the numbers of nuclei found in H and L nuclear fractions. By 12 weeks of age, 4n-H nuclei were the largest single population of nuclei in rat liver. These observations suggested that the shift of liver nuclei from the L fraction to the H fraction was associated with the development of polyploidy and with the differentiation of hepatocytes.     

On the biochemical significance of phosphoserine: a working hypothesis

The significance of the presence of free phosphoserine in living cells represents an intriguing problem. Its utilization for the synthesis of phosphoproteins and phospholipids has been ruled out. It is produced extensively by hydrolysis of phosphoproteins or phosphatidylserine since no phosphorylating enzyme for serine is present. So far the only significance of phosphoserine has been related to its participation in the exchange reaction with serine, the meaning of which is quite unclear. Evidence is presented that phosphoserine could modulate the activity of phospholipase A2, thus regulating the permeability properties of cellular and intracellular membranes which depend largely on phospholipase pattern. Phosphoserine in fact inhibits in a competitive way phospholipase A2 from cobra venom.     

The intracrine hypothesis: an update

The intracellular actions of peptide hormones, growth factors, as well as of extracellular-signaling enzymes and DNA-binding proteins, either within target cells or within their cells of synthesis has been called intracrine action. Although these intracrine moieties are structurally diverse, they share certain characteristics of synthesis and function. This has given rise to the development of a theory of intracrine action which permits testable predictions to be made regarding the functioning of these peptides/proteins. Here the intracrine hypothesis is briefly described and then recent experimental findings which bear on predictions made earlier on the basis of the theory are discussed. These findings provide new support for the intracrine hypothesis.     

Reversing cell polarity: evidence and hypothesis

The long, rod-shaped cells of myxobacteria are polarized by their gliding engines. At the rear, A-engines push while pili pull the front end forward. An hypothesis is developed whereby both engines are partially dis-assembled, then re-assembled at the opposite pole when cells reverse their movement direction. Reversals are induced by an Mgl G-protein switch that controls engine polarity. The switch is driven by an oscillatory circuit of Frizzy proteins. In growing cells, the circuit gives rise to an occasional reversal that makes swarming possible. Then, as myxobacteria begin fruiting body development, a rising level of C-signal input drives the oscillator and changes the reversal pattern. Cells reverse regularly every eight minutes in traveling waves, the reversal period is then prolonged enabling cells to form streams that enlarge tiny random aggregates into fruiting bodies.     

In support of null hypothesis significance testing

Many criticisms have been levelled at null hypothesis significance testing (NHST). It is argued here that although there is reason to doubt that data subjected only to NHST have been subjected to sufficient analysis, the search for clear answers to well-formulated questions derived from substantive hypotheses is well served by NHST. To reliably draw inferences from data, however, NHST may need to be complemented by additional methods of analysis, such as the use of confidence intervals and of estimates of the degree of association between independent and dependent variables. It is argued that these should be seen as complements of, rather than as substitutes for, NHST since they do not directly test the strength of evidence against a null hypothesis.