Floral species richness,structural diversity and conservation value of vanilla agroecosystems in Madagascar

Agricultural landscapes provide financial livelihoods for farming communities in rural areas. However, such agroenvironments can significantly impact the local floral biodiversity and introduce harmful invasive species to the ecosystem. Despite the prominence of plantations throughout the tropics, their effects on local flora are limited to only a few specific cash crops and geographical regions. Here, we compared the species richness and structural diversity of vegetation in natural forest fragments and three types of vanilla plantation within the Sava region of north-east Madagascar ranging from those within or adjacent to existing forests, to intensively cultivated plantations. We recorded data on plant species abundance, diameter at breast height and canopy cover within multiple sites of each habitat. We used abundance data to calculate species richness indices, and we compared these metrics between habitats. Forested habitats contained a significantly higher floral species richness, structural diversity and more endemic and regionally native species than nonforested, anthropogenic vanilla plantations. However, our results suggest that the high floral species richness and structural diversity of natural forests can be partially achieved in vanilla plantations, depending on the site's management regime; traditionally managed vanilla plantations located close to natural forests can support diverse floral communities. These encouraging findings for plant conservation and sustainable agroforestry in Madagascar suggest that that newly created vanilla plantations and already existing nonforested plantations should endeavour to follow the more traditional forested approach to enhance the future sustainability and promote floristic diversity.     

Use of Mangroves by Lemurs

Despite an increasing recognition of the ecosystem services provided by mangroves, we know little about their role in maintaining terrestrial biodiversity, including primates. Madagascar’s lemurs are a top global conservation priority, with 94 % of species threatened with extinction, but records of their occurrence in mangroves are scarce. I used a mixed-methods approach to collect published and unpublished observations of lemurs in mangroves: I carried out a systematic literature search and supplemented this with a targeted information request to 1243 researchers, conservation and tourism professionals, and others who may have visited mangroves in Madagascar. I found references to, or observations of, at least 23 species in 5 families using mangroves, representing >20% of lemur species and >50% of species whose distributions include mangrove areas. Lemurs used mangroves for foraging, sleeping, and traveling between terrestrial forest patches, and some were observed as much as 3 km from the nearest permanently dry land. However, most records were anecdotal and thus tell us little about lemur ecology in this habitat. Mangroves are more widely used by lemurs than has previously been recognized and merit greater attention from primate researchers and conservationists in Madagascar.     

Sugarcane and Eucalyptus plantation equally limit the movement of two forest‐dependent understory bird species

Habitat fragmentation results in landscape configuration, which affects the species that inhabit it. As a consequence, natural habitat is replaced by different anthropogenic plantation types (e.g. pasture, agriculture, forestry plantations and urban areas). Anthropogenic plantations are important for biodiversity maintenance because some species or functional groups can use it as a complementary habitat. However, depending on plantation permeability, it can act as a barrier to the movement of organisms between habitat patches, such as forest fragments, reducing functional connectivity for many species. Anthropogenic plantations are becoming the most common land use and cover type in the Anthropocene and biodiversity conservation in fragmented landscapes requires information on how different plantation types affect the capacity of the species to move through the landscape. In this study, we evaluated the influence of the type and structure of plantations on the movement of two forest‐dependent understory bird species – plain antvireo (Dysithamnus mentalis) and flavescent warbler (Myiothlyps flaveola) – within a highly fragmented landscape of Atlantic Forest hotspot. Knowing that forestry plantation is assumed to be more permeable to dependent forest bird species than open ones, we selected six study areas containing a forest fragment and surrounding plantation: three with sugarcane plantation and three with Eucalyptus sp. plantation. We used playback calls to stimulate the birds to leave forest fragments and traverse the plantations. Control trials were also carried out inside the forest fragments to compare the distances crossed. We observed that individuals moved longer distances inside forest than between plantation types, which demonstrate that plantations do constrict the movements of both species. The two plantation types equally impeded the movements of the species, suggesting the opposite of the general assumption that forestry plantations are more permeable. Our results indicate that, for generalist species, plantation type does not matter, but its presence negatively impacts movement of these bird species. We highlight that plantations have negative influences on the movements of common bird species, and discuss why this is important when setting conservation priorities.     

Forest Type Influences Population Densities of Nocturnal Lemurs in Manompana,Northeastern Madagascar

Forest loss, fragmentation, and anthropization threaten the survival of forest species all over the world. Shifting agriculture is one of these threatening processes in Madagascar. However, when its cycle is halted and the land is left to regenerate, the resulting growth of secondary forest may provide a viable habitat for folivorous and omnivorous lemur species. We aimed to identify the response of nocturnal lemurs to different successional stages of regenerating secondary, degraded mature, and mature forest across a mosaic-type landscape. We surveyed four nocturnal lemur species (Avahi laniger, Microcebus cf. simmonsi, Allocebus trichotis, and Daubentonia madagascariensis) in four forest types of varying habitat disturbance in northeastern Madagascar. We estimated densities in mature and regenerating secondary forest for the eastern woolly lemur (Avahi laniger) and mouse lemur (Microcebus cf. simmonsi), two sympatric species with folivorous and omnivorous diets respectively. We did not estimate densities of Allocebus trichotis and Daubentonia madagascariensis owing to small sample size; however, we observed both species exclusively in mature forest. We found higher population densities of A. laniger and M. cf. simmonsi in secondary than in mature forest, showing the potential of regenerating secondary forest for lemur conservation. Several environmental factors influenced the detectability of the two lemur species. While observer and habitat type influenced detection of the eastern woolly lemur, canopy height and vine density influenced detection of mouse lemurs. Understanding how different species with different diets interact with anthropogenically impacted habitat will aid future management decisions for the conservation of primate species.     

Frugivory in four sympatric lemurs: implications for the future of Madagascar's forests

Although some conservationists accept that not all species can be saved, we illustrate the difficulty in deciding which species are dispensable. In this article, we examine the possibility that the integrity of a forest relies on its entire faunal assemblage. In Madagascar, one faunal group, the lemurs, accounts for the greatest biomass and species richness among frugivores. For example, 7 of the 13 sympatric lemur species in Madagascar's eastern rainforests consume primarily fruit. Because of this, we suggest that some tree species may rely heavily on particular lemur taxa for both seed dispersal and germination. In Ranomafana National Park, the diets for four of the day-active lemur frugivores have been documented during annual cycles over a 5-year period. We predicted that, although the fruit of some plant taxa would be exploited by multiple lemur species, the fruit of others would be eaten by one lemur species alone. Analyses reveal that while lemurs overlap in a number of fruit taxa exploited, 46% (16/35) of families and 56% (29/52) of genera are eaten exclusively by one lemur species. We, therefore, predict local changes in forest composition and structure if certain of these lemur species are eliminated from a forest owing to hunting, disease, or habitat disturbance. We also suggest that this result may be of global significance because carbon sequestration by the tropical forests in Madagascar may be reduced as a result of this predicted change in forest composition.     

Movement patterns of selected insect groups between natural forest,open land and rubber plantation in a tropical landscape (southern Yunnan,SW China)

In many regions of tropical Asia, the expansion of rubber monoculture plantations is conducted by replacement of natural forest areas and strongly affects biodiversity and movement patterns of wild species, including insects. Against this background, we conducted a study on selected insect groups (longhorn beetles, bark beetles, wild bees and hoverflies) along transects between rainforest patches, open uncultivated land and rubber plantation habitats in a region of Xishuangbanna (southern Yunnan, China), with the objectives to identify (a) movement directions and patterns of selected insect groups based on their abundances in modified Malaise traps in the different habitats, and (b) the role of remaining natural rainforest patches and rubber plantations, respectively, for insect diversity maintenance and conservation. The highest total numbers of species and individuals of bark beetles, longhorn beetles and wild bees were recorded from the natural forest edge compared to open land and rubber plantation edge. This result clearly indicates that the natural forest plays an important role in maintenance of these three insect groups. However, the highest number of hoverfly species and individuals was recorded from the open land sites, indicating the most relevant habitat type for this group of species. Overall, the lowest species and individual numbers were recorded from the rubber plantation edge, indicating the unsuitability of this habitat type for all insect groups considered. The distribution of species and individuals in the opposite trap sides along the transect indicates that longhorn beetles, bark beetles and wild bees show not only movements from the forest to the surrounding habitats, but also return back after encountering the unsuitable rubber plantation habitat. Bark beetle composition showed the relatively highest similarity between all trap sites and opposite trap sides among the insect groups considered, indicating a higher movement activity than the other groups. The four insect groups considered in this study show different movement modes between the forest, open land and rubber plantation, which are not the same for all taxa. Except for hoverflies, the natural forest was found to be the most important habitat for the maintenance of species diversity in the different land use types of the study area.     

Effects of Habitat Quality and Seasonality on Ranging Patterns of Collared Brown Lemur (Eulemur collaris) in Littoral Forest Fragments

Degraded forest habitats typically show low fruit availability and scattered fruit tree distribution. This has been shown to force frugivorous primates either to move further in search of food, resulting in large home ranges, or to use energy saving strategies. Malagasy lemurs are known to face pronounced seasonality and resource unpredictability, which is amplified by the overall reduction in food availability due to the human-driven habitat disturbance on the island. To explore lemur flexibility to habitat disturbance, we examined the ranging behavior of collared brown lemurs (Eulemur collaris) in two differently degraded fragments of littoral forest of southeastern Madagascar. We collected data from February 2011 to January 2012 on two groups living in a degraded area and two groups living in a less disturbed forest. We calculated annual ranges, monthly ranges, and daily distance traveled. We then ran repeated measures ANOVAs using seasonality as dichotomous, intrasubject factor and site/group as intersubject nested factors. In the degraded forest, the lemurs had larger monthly ranges, and their annual ranges were either fragmented or characterized by multiple core areas. They were able to use a habitat mosaic that also included nonforested areas and swamps. In addition, they shortened their daily path length, possibly to preserve energy, and used different areas of their annual home ranges seasonally. Although a number of possible confounding factors may have been responsible for the observed differences between sites, our findings highlight the ranging flexibility of collared brown lemurs in littoral forest fragments.     

Landscape context of plantation forests in the conservation of tropical mammals

Plantation forests have been expanding in many tropical and subtropical environments. Howerver, even when they replace less wildlife friendly land uses such as pastures and annual crops, the biodiversity levels of pristine natural habitats often have not been recovered. Here we addressed how the landscape context of plantation forests located in South-eastern Brazil affects species richness and community resilience of medium and large size mammals. The area covered by native habitat fragments surrounding plantation forests is positively related to functional richness, including the presence of species more vulnerable to extinction in fragmented landscapes. In addition, the degree of aggregation of plantation forest stands is negatively related to more vulnerable species. No primates were recorded in our seven plantation forest sites (ranging from 272 to 24,921 ha), even when they were seen in native habitat fragments adjacent to commercial tree stands. Two invasive species (Sus scrofa and Lepus capensis) were recorded in four plantation forest sites. The impoverishment of fauna in plantation forests is due to two factors. First, plantation forests generally are structurally simplified habitats when compared to highly diverse tropical forests. Secondly, the isolation from habitat fragments which act as source of individuals in the landscape precludes the establishment of individual in plantation forest. We also highlighted the management practices to improve the complexity of vegetation in commercial tree stands should be taken cautiously, insofar as reduced productivity per area entails a greater demand for land. Thus, an alternative would be intensify the management of the commercial tree stands for wood production together with the restoration of adjacent areas set aside to conservation and native habitat fragments protection.     

Species‐area relationships of lemurs in a fragmented landscape in Madagascar

We used species‐area relationships (SARs) to investigate the effects of habitat loss on lemur biogeography. We measured species richness via visual surveys on line transects within 42 fragments of dry deciduous forest at the Ambanjabe field site in Ankarafantsika National Park, Madagascar. We measured human disturbance and habitat characteristics within 38 of the 42 fragments. We measured the distance between each fragment and the nearest settlement, continuous forest, and nearest neighboring fragment. We fit 10 candidate SAR models to the data using nonlinear least squares regression and compared them using Akaike's Information Criterion (AIC). To determine how habitat characteristics, as well as area, influenced species richness, we ran a hierarchical partitioning procedure to select which variables to include in generalized additive models (GAMs) and compared them using AIC. Contrary to expectations, we found that lemurs form convex SARs, without a “small island effect”, and with the power model being the most likely SAR model. Although we found that four variables (area, survey effort, and total human disturbance, and mean tree height) independently contributed greater than 10% of the variation in lemur species richness, only area was included in the most likely model. We suggest that the power model was the most likely SAR model and our inability to detect a “small island effect” are the result of Microcebus spp. being edge tolerant and capable of dispersing through matrix, scale issues in the study design, and low γ‐diversity in the landscape. However, more study is needed to determine what role human disturbance plays in influencing species richness in lemurs.     

Habitat Characteristics and Lemur Species Richness in Madagascar1

In the extant lemur communities of Madagascar the number of lemur species increases with increasing number of tree species. In forests with few tree species lemurs use patches with higher number of tree species than average. However, in forest plots with high number of tree species, lemurs stay in places with lower number of tree species than average. At low tree species diversity a minimum number of different tree species seems to be required within the animals' home range to assure year-round food availability. At high tree species diversity tree species essential for survival might be diluted by resources which are of no use for lemurs, thus increasing energetic expenses for traveling between suitable patches. According to the present analyses, structural diversity is of subordinate importance to the number of tree species as a correlate of lemur species richness. Within limits of disturbance intensity and on a small geographic scale, disturbances increase forest productivity. Lemurs reach higher species numbers and population densities in slightly disturbed areas compared with undisturbed sites. This peaked curve of the number of lemur species over disturbance, however, may not only be a consequence of “resource dilution” in undisturbed sites and higher food abundance in slightly disturbed areas, but also a consequence of selective extinction of lemur species which were unable to cope with the disturbance regime exaggerated by human interference over the last few hundred or thousand years.     

The role of planted forests in the provision of habitat: an Irish perspective

The continued decline of natural forests globally has increased interest in the potential of planted forests to support biodiversity. Here, we examine the potential conservation benefits of plantation forests from an Irish perspective, a country where remaining natural forests are fragmented and degraded, and the majority of the forest area is comprised of non-native Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carr.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) plantations. We examine the true value of Irish plantation forests to native biodiversity, relative to remaining natural forest fragments, and to prior and alternative land use to afforestation. We find that plantation forests provide a suitable surrogate habitat primarily for generalist species, as well as providing habitat for certain species of conservation concern. However, we find that plantation forests provide poor habitat for native forest specialists, and examine potential management strategies which may be employed to improve habitat provision services for this group.     

Effects of management intensity on ant diversity in cocoa plantation (Oume,centre west Côte d’Ivoire)

Anthropogenic habitat modifications, including conversion of forest to agricultural production cause losses of native species. In this study we examined the losses suffered by ant communities in relation to the intensity of management in cocoa plantations established in former tropical forest. An extensive sampling protocol consisting of pitfall trapping, leaf litter sampling, soil sampling and hand sampling was used to characterize ant species richness and composition in the native forest and compare it with three cocoa farms differing in their management intensity. Species richness was negatively correlated with management intensity and differed greatly between management practices and the forest. Two subfamilies (Myrmicinae and Amblyoponinae) showed a significant negative correlation with agricultural intensification probably because their species are constrained to living in forest like habitat. The species composition differed greatly between management practices and the forest. Intensively and moderately managed cocoa plantations were most dissimilar to the forest. In contrast, forest ants were well represented in the least intensively managed plantation. Overall, the findings of this study show that only slightly managed cocoa plantations sustain an ant diversity that comes close to that of the forest. This also holds true for cocoa plantations on former agricultural, and thus previously heavily used, land. The findings may help in the conservation of biodiversity as management practices most likely to sustain forest like ant communities have been identified.     

Predator–Primate Distribution,Activity, and Co-occurrence in Relation to Habitat and Human Activity Across Fragmented and Contiguous Forests in Northeastern Madagascar

Predator–primate interactions are understudied, yet predators have been shown to influence primate behavior, population dynamics, and spatial distribution. An understanding of these interactions is important for the successful management and conservation of these species. Novel approaches are needed to understand better the spatial relationships between predators and primates across changing landscapes. We combined photographic surveys of predators and humans with line-transect sampling of lemurs across contiguous and fragmented forests in Madagascar to 1) compare relative activity; 2) estimate probability of occupancy and detection; 3) estimate predator–primate and local people–primate co-occurrence; and 4) assess variables influencing these parameters across contiguous and fragmented forests. In fragmented (compared to contiguous) forest sites endemic predator and lemur activity were lower whereas introduced predator and local people activity were higher. Our two-species interaction occupancy models revealed a higher number of interactions among species across contiguous forest where predator and lemur occupancy were highest. Mouse lemurs show evidence of “avoidance” (SIF < 1.0) with all predator species (endemic and introduced) in contiguous forest whereas white-fronted brown lemurs show “attraction” (SIF > 1.0) with feral cats and local people in contiguous forest. Feral cats demonstrated the highest number of interactions with lemurs, despite their distribution being limited to only contiguous forest. Distance to forest edge and distance to nearby villages were important in predicting predator occupancy and detection. These results highlight the growing threat to endemic predators and lemurs as habitat loss and fragmentation increase throughout Madagascar. We demonstrate the effectiveness of a novel combination of techniques to investigate how predator species impact primate species across a gradient of forest fragmentation.     

Habitat Degradation and Seasonality Affect Physiological Stress Levels of Eulemur collaris in Littoral Forest Fragments

The littoral forest on sandy soil is among the most threatened habitats in Madagascar and, as such, it represents a hot-spot within a conservation hot-spot. Assessing the health of the resident lemur fauna is not only critical for the long-term viability of these populations, but also necessary for the future re-habilitation of this unique habitat. Since the Endangered collared brown lemur, Eulemur collaris, is the largest seed disperser of the Malagasy south-eastern littoral forest its survival in this habitat is crucial. In this study we compared fecal glucocorticoid metabolite (fGCM) levels, a measure of physiological stress and potential early indicator of population health, between groups of collared brown lemurs living in a degraded forest fragment and groups occurring in a more preserved area. For this, we analysed 279 fecal samples collected year-round from 4 groups of collared brown lemurs using a validated 11-oxoetiocholanolone enzyme immunoassay and tested if fGCM levels were influenced by reproductive stages, phenological seasons, sex, and habitat degradation. The lemurs living in the degraded forest had significantly higher fGCM levels than those living in the more preserved area. In particular, the highest fGCM levels were found during the mating season in all animals and in females during gestation in the degraded forest. Since mating and gestation are both occurring during the lean season in the littoral forest, these results likely reflect a combination of ecological and reproductive pressures. Our findings provide a clear indication that habitat degradation has additive effects to the challenges found in the natural habitat. Since increased stress hormone output may have long-term negative effects on population health and reproduction, our data emphasize the need for and may add to the development of effective conservation plans for the species.     

Edge effects and their influence on lemur density and distribution in Southeast Madagascar

Edge effects are caused by the penetration of abiotic and biotic conditions from the matrix into forest interiors. Although edge effects influence the biogeography of many tropical organisms, they have not been studied directly in primates. Edge effects are particularly relevant to lemurs due to the loss of 80-90% of forests in Madagascar. In this study, data are presented on how biotic edge effects influenced the distribution and density of lemurs in the Vohibola III Classified Forest in southeastern Madagascar. In total, 415 lemur surveys were conducted during June-October 2003 and May-September 2004 along six 1,250-m transects that ran perpendicular to the forest edge. Data were also collected on lemur food trees along the six transects (density, height, diameter at breast height, area, volume, and distance to forest edge). Four nocturnal species (Avahi laniger, Cheirogaleus major, Lepilemur microdon, and Microcebus rufus) and four diurnal species (Eulemur rubriventer, Eulemur fulvus rufus, Hapalemur grisesus griseus, and Propithecus diadema edwardsi) were sighted during surveys. Regression analyses of lemur densities as a function of distance to forest edge provided edge tolerances for A. laniger (edge-tolerant), M. rufus (edge-tolerant), E. rubriventer (edge-tolerant or omnipresent), and H. g. griseus (omnipresent). The density and distribution of M. rufus and their foods trees were correlated. Edge-related variations in food quality and predation pressures may also be influencing lemurs in Vohibola III. Tolerance for edge effects may explain, in part, how lemurs have survived extreme habitat loss and forest fragmentation in southeastern Madagascar.     

Test of Fox's assembly rule for functional groups in lemur communities in Madagascar

This paper examines to what extent an assembly rule designed by Fox for small terrestrial mammal communities is also applicable to communities of arboreal lemurs in Madagascar. This approach extends the testing of Fox's assembly rule to a new biogeographic region and a different phylogenetic radiation. The rule operates on a functional rather than on the taxonomic level. It specifies that: "There is a much higher probability that each species entering a community will be drawn from a different functional group, until each group is represented before the cycle repeats" (Fox, 1987: 201). This rule was tested with lemur communities from 14 sites in evergreen rain forests and nine sites in dry deciduous forests of Madagascar. Lemur species were assigned to one of three different functional groups based on dietary preferences: omnivores, frugivores, folivores. The rule applies almost perfectly to extant lemur communities in evergreen rain forest. Present communities in dry deciduous forests are not ordered as perfectly as communities of the rain forest sites, but they also deviate from random assembly as generated by the null model. Including extinct species of the dry forest ecosystem indicates that the at present unfavoured composition of the lemur community has been derived from a favoured state through extinction of the large folivorous and frugivorous lemur species. In the lemur communities of the eastern Malagasy rain forest, the assembly went through at least four, and in the Holocene dry forest ecosystem through even five, cycles without failing. This assigns considerable significance to the underlying mechanisms (most likely interspecific competition) and indicates that they are still effective in the forests of Madagascar. The dry deciduous forests might have been subject to recent natural and anthropogenic changes which interfere with the operation of these deterministic processes.     

Spillover of Insects from Rain Forest into Adjacent Oil Palm Plantations

Conversion of natural forest to oil palm plantations is a major threat to biodiversity in Southeast Asia. The retention of natural forest habitats within plantations has been proposed as a method to reduce biodiversity losses in agricultural areas, and we examined whether forest areas resulted in spillover of species into adjacent oil palm plantations. We sampled ants and butterflies along two 2‐km transects across an ecotone from plantation into adjacent forest in Sabah, Malaysian Borneo. Species richness of both taxa was reduced in plantations, but to a greater extent in butterflies (54% reduction) than in ants (25% reduction). Butterfly diversity increased in plantations with increasing proximity to forest primarily due to spillover of ‘vagrant’ forest species (whose larval host plants do not occur in plantations), although richness of species that could potentially breed in plantations also increased near to forest. By contrast, ants showed no spillover effects and were less sensitive to land‐use changes, with much higher levels of similarity in species assemblages across habitats than for butterflies. Our results for butterflies suggest that despite the negative impacts of plantations on diversity, proximity to forest could improve diversity in adjacent plantations for some taxa. Spillover of forest species implies that retaining forest areas within plantations may be important for facilitating dispersal of some species through the landscape.     

The Use of an Invasive Species Habitat by a Small Folivorous Primate: Implications for Lemur Conservation in Madagascar

The lemurs of Madagascar are among the most threatened mammalian taxa in the world, with habitat loss due to shifting cultivation and timber harvest heavily contributing to their precarious state. Deforestation often leads to fragmentation, resulting in mixed-habitat matrices throughout a landscape where disturbed areas are prone to invasion by exotic plants. Our study site, the Mandena littoral forest (southeast Madagascar), is a matrix of littoral forest, littoral swamp, and Melaleuca swamp habitats. Here, Melaleuca quinquenervia has invaded the wetland ecosystem, creating a mono-dominant habitat that currently provides the only potential habitat corridor between forest fragments. We sought to understand the role of this invasive Melaleuca swamp on the behavioral ecology of a threatened, small-bodied folivore, the southern bamboo lemur (Hapalemur meridionalis). We collected botanical and behavioral data on four groups of H. meridionalis between January and December 2013. Our results confirm Melaleuca swamp as an important part of their home range: while lemurs seasonally limited activities to certain habitats, all groups were capable of utilizing this invasive habitat for feeding and resting. Furthermore, the fact that Hapalemur use an invasive plant species as a dispersal corridor increases our knowledge of their ecological flexibility, and may be useful in the conservation management of remaining threatened populations.     

Sleeping and Ranging Behavior of the Sambirano Mouse Lemur, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Microcebus sambiranensis</Emphasis>

Primates require secure sleeping sites for periods of rest, but despite their importance, the characteristics of desired sleeping sites are poorly known. Here we investigated the sleeping ecology of a radio-collared population of the Sambirano mouse lemur, Microcebus sambiranensis, during the nonreproductive season in the Anabohazo forest, northwestern Madagascar. We also investigated their ranging behavior and examined the spatial distribution of sleeping sites within the home ranges of the collared individuals. We took measurements of the sleeping tree’s physical characteristics and recorded the number of collared individuals using each sleeping site. We found that M. sambiranensis generally use foliage sleeping sites more frequently than tree holes and individuals slept more frequently in densely foliated trees than in sparsely foliated trees, often alone. We observed no significant differences in home range size or nightly travel distance between males and females; however, home ranges were smaller than those described for other mouse lemur species. Finally, we found that M. sambiranensis sleep peripherally and forage centrally within their home ranges, a behavior not previously described for mouse lemurs. Our results indicate profound differences in the social organization between M. sambiranensis and other mouse lemur species described in the literature, suggesting species-specificity in mouse lemur ecology. Understanding the sleeping ecology and ranging behavior of mouse lemurs is of great importance to their conservation, as these data facilitate the planning of long-term reforestation, habitat management, and population assessment.