Dispersal and Burial Behavior in Larvae of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Chrysomya megacephala</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Chrysomya albiceps</Emphasis> (Diptera,Calliphoridae)

Blowflies use discrete and ephemeral substrates to feed their larva. After they run out of food, the larvae begin to disperse in order to find adequate places for pupation or additional food sources, a process named post-feeding larval dispersal. Briefly state the aspects and why they are important were studied in a circular arena of 25 cm in diameter and covered with wood shavings to a height of 40 cm allowing post-feeding dispersal from the center of the arena. Larvae of both Chrysomya albiceps and C. megacephala were used in five experiments for each species. For each pupa location, determined as distance from the center, depth, and weight were evaluated. Statistical tests were done to verify the relation between weight, depth and distance for pupation and for larvae of two species shows that the media distance is significantly different for two species and for C. megacephala this distance is greater than the distance for C. albiceps. The depth too is different for each species, as the larvae of C. megacephala buries deeper than C. albiceps. With relation of weight, there is no statistic evidence that have any difference between weights for pupation for each species.     

Ultrastructure of male accessory glands of Chrysomya megacephala (Fabricius) (Diptera: Calliphoridae)

The ultrastructure of the male accessory glands of the blow fly, Chrysomya megacephala (Fabricius), was presented using light microscopy (LM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). A pair of accessory glands was separated at opposite sites. Morphometric results using LM yield evidenced no significant difference in the median of either length or width of the left and right glands. A significant increment in both length and width was seen to plateau between three to six days. SEM observation showed that the surface of the glands revealed a faint irregular groove pattern throughout, and it was occasionally penetrated by tracheoles. Each gland was a slender, elongated sac‐like tubule having apical rounded ends, with a slight constriction at the sub‐apical part of the gland being observed occasionally. TEM analyses of three‐day‐old males showed that the glands consisted of external capsular cells with a basement membrane underneath, glandular cells, and gland lumen. The capsular cell was flat and contained a nucleus with electron dense material in the nuclear envelope. The glandular cell, appearing as columnar, consisted of a vacuolated component that contained a large oval nucleus centrally or sub‐basally located, with dense mitochondria, numerous rough endoplasmic reticulum, and secretory vesicles containing electron‐lucent materials. In the gland lumen, the cross‐section through the middle portion revealed dense secretory materials, characterized by electron‐dense materials. Some sections revealed a large lumen where secretion accumulates within the delicate sac. The seven‐day‐old glands exhibited a remarkable change in the lumen, where the whole space contained a large amount of secretory materials, with the electron‐dense materials being characterized as similar to those observed in three‐day‐old glands. About four prominent types of secretions were observed on the basis of difference in electron‐density.     

Inheritance patterns of new genetic markers and occurrence of spontaneous mosaicism in the monogenic blowfly Chrysomya rufifacies (Diptera: Calliphoridae)

 Four new genetic markers for Chrysomya rufifacies, a fly with maternal sex determination, were characterized. The markers include one body colour mutant, black body (bl), and three eye colour mutants, brown eye (br), apricot eye (ap), and red eye (w ^r ). Two of the latter, br and w ^r , turn out to be sex linked, the others behave as autosomal genes belonging to different linkage groups. w ^r is a hypomorphic and w an apomorphic mutation of the white gene, w/w is epistatic to br/br and to ap/ap. A preliminary genetic linkage map with the sex realizer F′/f  and the loci br and w residing in homomorphic sex chromosomes is established. Evidence is presented that crossing over is absent in the male sex. The possible causes of the spontaneous appearance of mosaics for eye colour observed among individuals heterozygous for recessive genes are discussed. Received: 18 March 1996/Accepted: 9 August 1996     

Life table and predation of Oligota pygmaea (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae) a major predator of the red spider mite, Oligonychus coffeae (Acarina: Tetranychidae) infesting tea

The staphylinid beetle, Oligota pygmaea (Solier) is an important predator of the red spider mite, Oligonychus coffeae (Nietner) infesting tea. Biology, life table and predatory efficiency of O. pygmaea were studied under laboratory conditions. Duration of developmental stages of O. pygmaea was 3.2, 5.7 and 12.5 d for eggs, larvae and pupae, respectively with an average of 23.0 d from egg to adult emergence. After a mean preovipostion period of 2.9 d, each female laid an average of 400.5 eggs in its life span. Adult O. pygmaea lived for an average of 54.1 d. Adult females lived for a longer period of 58.8 d compared to the longevity of 49.4 d of adult male. Studies revealed that its life table characterized by an intrinsic rate of natural population increase (r) of 0.118 d, net reproductive rates (R_o) of 243.693 eggs/female, gross reproduction rate (Σm_x) of 245.313 eggs/female, generation time (T) of 46.575 d, doubling time (DT) of 5.874 d and finite rate of increase (λ) of 1.125 d. Seasonal abundance of O. pygmaea and its prey, O. coffeae was monitored by sampling 25 tea leaves randomly from each experimental block grown under the prevailing field conditions. O. pygmaea showed a typical pattern of population dynamics with a peak during January to March and low incidence during June to September. Peak in the population of O. pygmaea coincided with the abundance of O. coffeae in the tea fields. Weather factors such as high temperature, low relative humidity and low sunshine hours adversely affected the populations of O. pygmaea. The first to third instar larvae of O. pygmaea consumed 31.0–133.2 eggs of mites per day. Third instar larva of O. pygmaea consumed an average of 133.2 eggs, 46.4 hexapod larvae, 39.6 nymphs and 11.4 adults per day. Adult females consumed more number of red spider mites compared to the males.     

Effect of temperature on survival, development and reproduction of the predatory lacewing Dichochrysa prasina (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) reared on Ephestia kuehniella eggs (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Preimaginal development and adult longevity and reproduction of Dichochrysa prasina Burmeister were studied at six constant temperatures (15, 20, 25, 27, 30 and 33 °C) and a photoperiod of 16:8 (L:D). Eggs of the flour moth Ephestia kuehniella (Zeller) were used as food throughout preimaginal development, whereas the adults of D. prasina fed on a liquid diet of water, yeast hydrolysate, sugar and honey. At the highest tested temperature of 33 °C no larvae completed their development. At the rest of the tested temperatures the egg to adult developmental period ranged from approximately 92 days at 15 °C to 25 days at 30 °C. Percentages of adult emergence ranged from 36% at 15 °C to 84% at 30 °C. Both adult longevity and fecundity were significantly affected by temperature and the intrinsic rate of increase (r_m) reached its maximum value at 27 °C. These results could be useful for the establishment of a small scale rearing and mass production of D. prasina.     

Cannibalistic Behavior and Functional Response in Chrysomya albiceps (Diptera: Calliphoridae)

Chrysomya albiceps is a facultative predator and cannibal species during the larval stage. Very little is known about cannibalism and prey size preference, especially in blowflies. The purpose of this investigation was to determine the influence of prey size and larval density on cannibalism by third-instar larvae of C. albiceps under laboratory conditions. Our results indicate that no cannibalism occurs by third-instar larvae on first- and second-instar larvae, but third-instar larvae do eat second-instar larvae. The functional response on second-instar larvae is consistent with Holling type II. The consequences of consuming second-, compared to first- or third-, instar larvae as well as the implications of cannibalism for the population dynamics of C. albiceps are discussed.     

Contrasting responses to object orientation and illumination by the blowflies Chrysomya chloropyga and Lucilia sericata

The alighting response of two species of blowfly, Chrysomya chloropyga (Weidemann) and Lucilia sericata(Meigen) (Diptera: Calliphoridae), were considered in relation to the orientation and illumination of a flat, oblong visual object. A strong response to orientation was displayed by L. sericata with the greatest number alighting on the vertical object; there was no significant effect of orientation on the number of C. chloropyga which alighted. Both species alighted preferentially on the more strongly illuminated side of a vertical object. With the object horizontal and more strongly illuminated from below, C. chloropygaagain landed on the most brightly illuminated side. In contrast, reducing the brightness on the upper surface of the horizontally-suspended object reduced the number of L. sericataalighting on the upper surface but also reduced the overall catch, suggesting that for L. sericata the response to the illumination of a surface does not outweigh its response to its orientation. The implications of these results for the development of trapping technology for the monitoring or control of these economically important pest species is discussed.     

紫外长期胁迫对高世代麦长管蚜生命表参数的影响

为了评估紫外连续处理对第20代以后麦长管蚜Sitobion avenae (Fabricius)种群动态的影响,采用特定年龄生命表方法,设置不同强度(0,0.50,0.70 m W/cm2) UV-B连续多代处理麦长管蚜成虫,统计经紫外处理后的麦长管蚜第22代,第27代,第32代,第37代麦长管蚜生命表种群参数的变化并总结了1—37代麦长管蚜内禀增长率的变化规律。结果表明:(1)处理组供试麦长管蚜平均世代周期(T)呈先显著升高后下降的趋势。(2)低强度处理组内禀增长率(rm)、净增殖率(R0)、周限增长率(λ)均呈先升高后下降又升高的趋势,高强度处理组供试麦长管蚜内禀增长率(rm)、净增殖率(R0)、周限增长率(λ)呈先下降后显著升高的的趋势,且均在G37达到最大值。(3) 1—37代处理组麦长管蚜rm呈现先显著增高后下降又升高又下降又显著升高的变化规律,且均在G37达到最大值。由此可见:麦长管蚜经过多代的UV-B胁迫后,对其生命表参数的影响依然显著,在G37麦长管蚜对紫外的适应能力最强。本研究的创新点在于解析了第22代以后紫外胁迫对麦长管蚜种群动态的影响,从而为全面深入的阐述紫外胁迫对麦长管蚜生长繁殖的影响规律,掌握不同紫外胁迫下的剂量效应关系及麦长管蚜的适应性提供实验基础和理论依据。     

Life Tables of Phytoseiulus Macropilis (Banks) (Gamasida: Phytoseiidae) at Different Temperatures

The biology of Phytoseiulus macropilis (Banks) fed on Tetranychus urticae Koch was studied at different temperatures. The total development times averaged 7.5, 5.7, 4.2, 4.2 and 5.6 days at 20, 25, 28, 30 and 32°C, respectively at 78 ± 2% RH and 16 h photoperiod daily. The intrinsic rate of natural increase (r _m) and the net reproduction (R _o) reached maximum values 0.47 and 88.9, respectively, at 28°C. The mean generation time decreased (20.0-8.8 days) with increasing temperature 20-28°C.     

Effect of relative humidity on development, survival and reproduction of the predatory lacewing Dichochrysa prasina (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae)

The effect of five constant relative humidity (RH) regimes (12%, 33%, 55%, 75% and 94%) on the preimaginal development and adult longevity and reproduction of Dichochrysa prasina Burmeister was studied at 26 ± 1 °C and a photoperiod of 16:8 (L:D) under laboratory conditions. For the experiments, larvae were fed individually on eggs of the flour moth Ephestia kuehniella (Zeller), whereas adults on a liquid diet consisting of water, yeast hydrolysate, sugar and honey. The experimental insects were maintained individually in sealed plastic containers with saturated water salt solutions at the base to control RH. Preimaginal developmental time from egg to adult for females and males was significantly shorter at 75% and 94% RHs than at other RHs in the range from 12% to 55%. Percentages of adult emergence were similar at all RHs tested and varied from 52.5% to 75.0%. Adult females that had no access to water and were maintained at 12%–75% RH lived on average less than two weeks and laid no eggs, whereas at 94% RH they lived longer and each laid on average 201 eggs. When the females had periodic access to a water source a significant increase in both longevity and egg production occurred and the estimated intrinsic rate of increase was high, irrespective of RH. These results could be useful for the mass-rearing of D. prasina and for better understanding its population dynamics under field conditions.     

六斑月瓢虫取食不同猎物的生长发育及繁殖特性

六斑月瓢虫是我国农、林、蔬、果生态系统中重要的捕食性天敌之一,能够捕食多种猎物。不同的猎物质量显著影响捕食性天敌昆虫的活力。为评价取食不同猎物对六斑月瓢虫生物学特性的影响,采用实验种群生命表的方法研究了六斑月瓢虫取食烟粉虱、豆蚜和玉米蚜的生长发育和繁殖情况。结果表明,六斑月瓢虫取食烟粉虱的世代发育历期最长、存活率、雌虫寿命和繁殖力最低,分别为(26.15±0.42)d、(52.95±1.98)%、(53.73±2.17)d和(157.67±16.79)粒/雌;而取食玉米蚜的世代发育历期最短、存活率、雌虫寿命和繁殖力最高,分别为(16.40±0.49)d、(77.93±0.76)%、(68.33±4.31)d和(798.77±44.29)粒/雌;取食豆蚜时的各生物学参数介于两者之间。种群生命表参数也反映了类似的结果,取食烟粉虱的净增殖率(R0)、内禀增长率(r_m)和周限增长率(λ)最低分别为71.216、0.092和1.094,世代平均历期(T)最长为47.377d;取食玉米蚜的R_0、r_m和λ最高分别为290.281、0.131和1.143,T最短为42.428d。总体来看,相对于烟粉虱而言,蚜虫更适合六斑月瓢虫的生长发育和繁殖,且玉米蚜优于豆蚜。     

高压静电胁迫对麦长管蚜种群生长发育与繁殖的影响

为了探究高压静电场对麦长管蚜Sitobion avenae Fabriciusde的影响。采用特定年龄生命表的方法,设置2、4、6 k V/cm辐射强度处理小麦种子和出生24h内的1龄若蚜。统计连续20代电场胁迫后麦长管蚜生命表种群参数、繁殖参数以及存活率的变化。结果表明:(1)经高压静电场处理后麦长管蚜的内禀增长率(r)在2 k V/cm和4 k V/cm强度时受影响显著(P0.05),但两者表现的世代不同,2 k V/cm和4 k V/cm的最低值分别出现在第20代和第10代。(2)麦长管蚜的净增值率(R0)、平均世代周期(T)、繁殖力(F)、成虫寿命和产仔天数等参数均呈现前期受高压静电场影响各处理组均显著低于对照组(P0.05),随着世代的增加高压静电处理组与对照组无显著差异。(3)麦长管蚜的特定年龄阶段存活率曲线受世代和高压静电场强度的影响显著。研究结论:麦长管蚜的生长发育和繁殖受世代和高压静电场强度的双重影响,且两者具有交互效应。研究的创新点在于:模拟自然条件下(同时对植物和昆虫进行高压静电场辐射处理)高压静电场对麦长管蚜的影响,为蚜虫生态遗传进化和生态控蚜提供理论依据。     

Eicosanoids mediate nodulation reactions to a mollicute bacterium in larvae of the blowfly, Chrysomya megacephala

Nodulation is the temporally and quantitatively most important cellular defense response to bacterial, fungal and some viral infections in insects. We tested the hypothesis that prostaglandins and other eicosanoids are responsible for mediating nodulation reactions to bacterial infection in larvae of the blowfly Chrysomya megacephala. Third-instar larvae treated with Ureaplasma urealyticum formed nodules in a challenge dose-dependent manner. Nodulation was evoked shortly after injection and reached a maximum of approximately 25 nodules/larva within 8 h. Larvae treated with the glucocorticoid, dexamethasone and the cyclooxygenase inhibitors, indomethacin and piroxicam were impaired in their ability to form nodules following U. urealyticum infection. The number of nodules decreased with increasing doses of piroxicam. Contrarily, treating larvae with the lipooxygenase inhibitor, esculetin, and the dual cyclooxygenase/lipooxygenase inhibitor, phenidone did not influence nodulation reactions to infection. Supplying dexamethasone-treated larvae with the eicosanoid precursor, arachidonic acid, reversed the inhibitory effect of dexamethasone on nodulation. We infer from these results that eicosanoids mediate nodulation reactions to infection of a bacterial species that lacks cell walls in larvae of the blowfly, C. megacephala.     

Sexual size dimorphism decreases with temperature in a blowfly,Chrysomya megacephala (Fabricius) (Diptera: Calliphoridae)

1. There is wide intra‐specific variation in sexual size dimorphism (SSD). Much of this variation is probably as a result of sexual differences in the selective pressure on body size. However, environmental variables could affect males and females differently, causing variation in SSD. 2. We examined the effects of two temperatures (20 and 30 °C) on SSD in six populations of the blowfly, Chrysomya megacephala. 3. We found that body size increased with temperature in all the populations studied, and the sexes differed in phenotypic plasticity of body size in response to rearing temperature. This created substantial temperature‐induced variation in SSD (i.e. sex × temperature interaction). Males were often smaller than females, but the degree of dimorphism was smaller at the higher temperature (30 °C) and larger at the lower temperature (20 °C). This change in SSD was not because of a gender difference in the effect of temperature on development time. Further studies should address whether this variation can be produced by adaptive canalisation of one sex against variation in temperature, or whether it may be a consequence of non‐adaptive developmental differences between the sexes. 4. Although most studies assume that the magnitude of SSD is fixed within a species, the present study demonstrates that rearing temperature can generate considerable intra‐specific variation in the degree of SSD.     

Biology, life table and predation of Feltiella acarisuga (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) feeding on Tetranychus cinnabarinus eggs (Acari: Tetranychidae)

Feltiella acarisuga (Vallot) is a common predatory gall midge, which feeds on many species of spider mites. All major life history and life table parameters of F. acarisuga were determined using the carmine spider mite, Tetranychus cinnabarinus (Boisduval) eggs as prey under laboratory conditions [26.7 ± 2 °C, 75 ± 5% RH, and a photoperiod of l4:10 (L:D) h]. Developmental times of F. acarisuga were 2.6, 7.1, and 6.7 d for eggs, larvae, and pupae, respectively, with an average of 16.4 d from egg to adult emergence. Female immatures development took ≈1 d longer than male immatures did. Adult F. acarisuga lived an average of 12.8 d, and the female adults (13.3 d) lived significantly longer than male adults did (11.9 d). After an average of 1.5 d preoviposition period, each female laid an average of 27.3 eggs in its life span with an average of 2.1 eggs per day and an average of 2.8 eggs on each of its oviposition day. The raw data were analyzed using an age-stage, two-sex life table method that takes into consideration of the variable developmental rates among individuals and between sexes. The intrinsic rate of natural population increase (r), net reproductive rates (R_o), gross reproductive rate (∑m_x), generation time (T), and doubling time (DT), and the finite rate of increase (λ) of F. acarisuga were estimated using the age-stage, two-sex (male and female) life table analysis as 0.122 d⁻¹, 16.19 eggs per female, 20.81 eggs per female, 22.81 d, 1.1298 d, and 5.7 d⁻¹, respectively. Each of the first, second, and third instar larvae of F. acarisuga consumed an average of 35.5, 54.0 and 86.9 T. cinnabarinus eggs per day, respectively. Larvae of F. acarisuga could consume an average of 175.4, T. cinnabarinus eggs, and female larvae consumed 14% more spider mite eggs (187.6 eggs) than male larvae (165.1 eggs). The significance of other life table parameters related to the population and the potential of using F. acarisuga as a biological control agent are discussed.     

Ingestion of food by the adult screw-worm fly, Chrysomya bezziana (Diptera, Calliphoridae)

When females of the screw-worm fly, Chrysomya bezziana Villeneuve, were given a choice of solutions of protein, sucrose and water, their protein intake was substantial only on days 2, 3 and 4 after emergence, and during the 3 days following the first oviposition. Protein consumption by males remained consistently low for 10 days following emergence.Protein ingestion by laboratory-bred autogenous and anautogenous females, autogenous wild females of C. bezziana, and females of the anautogenous blowly species, Chrysomya megacephala (F), was compared. During the first ovarian cycle (days 1–6), protein solution accounted for 9.5% and 9.4% of the total liquid intake of laboratory-bred and wild anautogenous females of C. bezziana. Protein ingestion by C. megacephala females during the first ovarian cycle represented 23% of the total liquids. During the second ovarian cycle in C. bezziana, protein ingestion represented 21% of total liquids.The presence of dry sucrose or sucrose solution of high concentration depressed protein intake during the first ovarian cycle in C. bezziana.Most feeding by females occurred during the photophase with early morning and late evening peaks in carbohydrate ingestion and a late afternoon peak in protein ingestion.The ecological implications of the results are discussed.

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Résumé Quand les femelles de Chrysomya bezziana Villeneuve ont le choix entre des solutions de protéine, de sucrose et d'eau, la consommation de protéines n'est importante que lesond, troisième et quatrième jours après l'émergence, et pendant les 3 jours suivant la première ponte. La consommation de protéines par les mâles reste faible pendant les 10 jours qui suivent l'émergence.Les consommations de protéines par des femmelles de Chrysomya bezziana (sauvages autogènes, elevées en laboratoire autogènes et anautogènes) et par des femelles de l'espèce anautogène Chrysomya megacephala F. ont été comparées. Pendant le premier cycle ovarien (jours 1 à 6) les solutions de protéine ingérées par les femelles autogènes (issues du laboratoire et sauvages de Chrysomya bezziana) correspondent respectivement à 9,5% et 9,4% du liquide total absorbé. Pendant le premier cycle ovarien la quantité de protéine ingérée par les femelles de Chrysomya megacephala représente 23% du liquide absorbé total. Pendant le second cycle ovarien de Chrysomya bezziana, les protéines ingérées représentent 21% de l'absorption totale de liquide.La présence de sucrose sec ou en liquide à concentration élevée réduit la consommation de protéines pendant le premier cycle ovarien de Chrysomya bezziana.L'essentiel de l'alimentation des femelles en carbohydrates a lieu pendant la photophase avec des pics tôt le matin et tard le soir, et avec un pic en find d'après midi pour les protéines.Les conséquences écologiques de ces résultats sont discutées.

     

Interactions among the entomopathogenic fungus, Beauveria bassiana (Ascomycota: Hypocreales), the parasitoid, Aphidius matricariae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), and its host, Myzus persicae (Homoptera: Aphididae)

The effect of the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana on the biological characteristics and life table of Aphidius matricariae, a parasitoid of the green peach aphid, Myzus persicae, was studied under laboratory conditions. Aphids were first infected with twice the LC₉₅ of B. bassiana for third-instar M. persicae (2 × 10⁸ conidia/ml). Subsequently, at different intervals they were exposed to 1-day-old mated parasitoid females for 24 h. The number of mummies produced per female and the percentage emergence of the F1 generation differed significantly as a function of the time interval between application of the fungus and exposure to the parasitoid. The interference of B. bassiana on parasitoid development was also studied by first exposing the aphid hosts to the parasitoid for 24 h and subsequently applying B. bassiana. The number of mummies produced by a female A. matricariae varied from 11.8 to 24.8 and was significantly different when the aphids were first exposed to the parasitoids and then treated with B. bassiana 24, 48, 72, and 96 h after exposure. There were no significantly different effects of B. bassiana on net reproductive rate (R₀), mean generation time (T), intrinsic rate (r_m) and the finite rate of increase (λ) of A. matricariae as a result of development in hosts exposed to low or high conidial concentrations (1 × 10², 2 × 10⁸ conidia/ml). The parasitoids developed in infected hosts had lower r_m, λ, T and DT (doubling time) values compared with those that developed in uninfected hosts but no differences were observed in R₀ values. With proper timing, A. matricariae and B. bassiana can be used in combination in the successful biological control of M. persicae.     

Genetics of the hemolymph esterases ofLucilia cuprina (Diptera: Calliphoridae)

When hemolymph from adults ofLucilia cuprina was partitioned on native polyacrylamide gels, nonspecific esterase staining demonstrated 10 bands with up to six bands in an individual. The bands derive from alleles at two loci,E _HA (five alleles) andE _HB (four alleles).E _HA is located on chromosome 4, 16.3 map units fromsv (singed vibrissae) and 22.1 map units fromra (radial vein gaps).E _HB is located on chromosome 5, 34.0 map units fromto ² (topaz² eyes) and 7.2 map units frommv (M1-veinless).     

Morphological and quantitative aspects of nodule formation in hemolymph of the blowfly Chrysomya megacephala (Fabricius, 1794)

Insects manifest effective immune responses that include both cellular and humoral components. Morphological and quantitative aspects of cellular and humoral cooperation during nodule formation in Chrysomya megacephala hemolymph against Saccharomyces cerevisae yeast cells were demonstrated for the first time. The analyses were performed in non-injected larvae (NIL), saline-injected larvae (SIL) and yeast-injected larvae (YIL). The hemolymph of injected groups was collected 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 12, 24, 36, or 48-h post-injection. Morphological aspects of YIL nodulation were investigated using transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Quantitative analyses consisted of total (THC) and differential hemocyte counts (DHC) in all the groups and total yeast count (TYC) in YIL, which were performed in an improved Neubauer chamber. Nodule formation was initiated at approximately 2-h post-injection. Twelve hours after the injection, TEM revealed the presence of an amorphous membrane, at the same time that circulating hemocyte number decreased significantly contrasting the increase of yeast number. Our results showed the ability of C. megacephala hemolymph to perform humoral encapsulation when hemocyte population is insufficient to eliminate the microorganisms, warranting consideration in future investigations on the relative roles played by cellular and humoral elements of innate immunity of this calliphorid.     

Life history characteristics of Orius insidiosus (Say) fed Aphis glycines Matsumura

The soybean aphid, Aphis glycines Matsumura, is a new invasive pest of soybeans throughout most of the soybean production areas of North America. Field studies have demonstrated that the indigenous predator, Orius insidiosus (Say), is an important natural enemy of the soybean aphid early the soybean crop season. Because soybean aphid is newly introduced into North America, the life history characteristics of predators fed this aphid are not known. In laboratory assays, we measured the survival, development, longevity and reproduction of O. insidiosus fed 1, 3, 6 or 12 seconds to third instars of soybean aphid. O. insidiosus nymphal development decreased from 34.0 to 21.4 days as the number of soybean aphid nymphs provided increased from 1 to 6 aphid nymphs daily. Stage-specific mortality was highest at 68% for first instar O. insidiosus nymphs fed 1 soybean aphid nymph per day. Adult longevity (43.9 days) and fecundity (49.7 eggs per female) was highest for O. insidiosus fed 6 soybean aphid nymphs daily, but longevity (23.5 days) and fecundity (10.1 eggs per female) declined for adults fed 1 soybean aphid nymph daily. The intrinsic rate of increase of O. insidiosus ranged from 0.048 to 0.133. Compared to other prey species, soybean aphid is an adequate prey item for O. insidiosus. Our results suggest that O. insidiosus will be most effective in suppressing soybean aphid population growth in the initial phase of the aphid’s colonization of soybeans.