Pleistocene camelids from the Syrian Desert: The diversity in El Kowm

The family Camelidae has been present in Eurasia since the latest Miocene, and several species are recognized, but their evolution is poorly known. The region of El Kowm, central Syria, includes several sites spanning the Early to Late Pleistocene and provides the only abundant fossil record of camelids in the Middle East. Our preliminary results show that several species are present over the sequence, revealing some surprising evolutionary trends.     

The Oldowan site Aïn al Fil (El Kowm,Syria) and the first humans of the Syrian Desert

At present, the oldest traces of human cultures are found in Eastern Africa. New discoveries set anew the questions about human and animal dispersal into Eurasia. For over 1.8 million years, humans have been present in the Levant. An extensive program of surveys and excavations in the Syrian Desert showed that this part of the world was a very ancient land of settlement. In Central Syria, the oldest site, Aïn al Fil in the region of El Kowm, was excavated in 2008 and 2010. The lithic industry in the lowest layer can be characterized by numerous unretouched flakes, pebble-tools and core-like artefacts. This assemblage is typical in a broad sense of archaic Palaeolithic the debitage of which corresponds to mode 1. From a techno-typological point of view, this industry tallies quite well with the so-called Oldowan stage. It shows remarkable similarities with the oldest African assemblages. From a chronologic point of view, these levels occur before three positive events in the Matuyama paleomagnetic sequence. It seems consistent to place the Oldowan sequence around 1.8 Ma BP within the Olduvai subchron or just before Olduvai/Matuyama reversal limit. Together with those of the neighbouring site Hummal, these levels would be the oldest traces of human presence ever found in Syria. In the Levant, the first humans not only occupied favourable zones but regularly ventured deep into less welcoming environments suggesting an astonishing flexibility in their behavioural and survival skills.     

Garden of Eden or Desert Exile: The Mousterian of Hummal in context

Our view of MP cultural variability is blurred by site-specific problems as well as inadequate research concepts. The former are inherent in current fieldwork methodology and in the archaeological record itself. Excavation of Palaeolithic sites generally catches only parts of the entire archaeological record and thus leaves us with the sample size problem. Moreover, resolution of the archaeological record is often limited by the palimpsest problem which is especially given in spatially restricted sites (e.g. caves) coupled with a low sedimentation rate. Many research concepts not only neglect the resolution problem but also lack the consideration of scale when it comes to archaeological interpretation. Our aim is not to reinterpret the Levantine Middle Palaeolithic in the light of these challenges as this is outside the scope of this paper. Archaeological resolution and scale are nevertheless taken as guidelines for the integration of the Hummal Mousterian in a broader context. In doing so, we give a short review of current knowledge and show how a scale-sensitive approach can inform us about various aspects of the Levantine Middle Palaeolithic.     

Microvertebrates from unit G/layer 17 of the archaeological site of Hummal (El Kowm,Central Syria): Preliminary results

We present a first look at the microvertebrate fauna of the Middle Pleistocene site of Hummal in Central Syria. Some 2000 microvertebrate remains (1200 mammalian; 230 reptilian; 600 unidentified) were found in unit G/layer 17 by screen-washing sediments in an area of 4 m². The following taxa have been identified: Reptilia: Agaminae indet., Gekkota indet., Lacertidae indet. (2–3 taxa), Eryx sp., Natricinae indet.; and Mammalia: Crocidurinae indet., Chiroptera indet., Lepus sp., Arvicolinae indet., Ellobius sp., Microtus sp., Murinae indet. (large form), Mus sp., Meriones sp., Gerbillus sp. The presence of Ellobius indicates a Middle Pleistocene age of the fauna. This genus does not occur in Syria today, but is recorded in Israel in Late Acheulean to Early Mousterian sites. In North Africa, the occurrence of this genus is restricted to the early part of the Middle Pleistocene. The ecological requirements of the nearest living relatives of the recorded taxa indicate mainly open habitats, but also the presence of vegetation and wet conditions, at least close to the site. Lepus, Ellobius, Meriones, Gerbillus, and Eryx live to various extents in steppes, semi-deserts, and deserts. Various extant species of large murids that come into consideration occupy a variety of wooded habitats, grassland and savannah and require the presence of water. Hummal offers the most detailed Pleistocene portrait yet of hominin palaeoenvironment in an area that, at the end of the Pleistocene, became known as part of the Fertile Crescent.     

Patterning of the early Middle Paleolithic occupations at Douara Cave and its implications for settlement dynamics in the Palmyra basin,Syria

This paper examines spatial patterning and settlement dynamics of early Middle Paleolithic hominins at Douara Cave, located on the northern edge of the Syrian Desert. The analyzed material came from our 1984 excavations of Horizons IVB–IVD, techno-typologically assigned to the Tabun D-type Levantine Mousterian (ca. 250 to 130 ka). Two findings are reported. One is the existence of spatial organization in the cave interior. Analysis of the field records shows that the occupation floor of the early Middle Paleolithic at Douara was well-organized into specific activity areas with a focal area of intensive activities close to the back wall. This suggests that the organized use of space known at late Middle Paleolithic sites like Tor Faraj, Jordan, is also applicable to the early Middle Paleolithic. Second, this paper discusses the functional role of this cave within the regional settlement system. A range of features characterizing its living floor(s) point to a very low occupational intensity, undoubtedly reflecting adaptation and particular land use patterns in the arid environments of this region. Moreover, this pattern, along with the division of interior space, seems to have remained consistent through multiple early Middle Paleolithic levels (IVB–IVD). These observations suggest that Douara Cave was a short-term camp embedded in a regional settlement system in the arid environments of this period.     

Inland human settlement in southern Arabia 55,000 years ago. New evidence from the Wadi Surdud Middle Paleolithic site complex, western Yemen

The recovery at Shi’bat Dihya 1 (SD1) of a dense Middle Paleolithic human occupation dated to 55 ka BP sheds new light on the role of the Arabian Peninsula at the time of the alleged expansion of modern humans out of Africa. SD1 is part of a complex of Middle Paleolithic sites cut by the Wadi Surdud and interstratified within an alluvial sedimentary basin in the foothills that connect the Yemeni highlands with the Tihama coastal plain. A number of environmental proxies indicate arid conditions throughout a sequence that extends between 63 and 42 ka BP. The lithic industry is geared toward the production of a variety of end products: blades, pointed blades, pointed flakes and Levallois-like flakes with long unmodified cutting edges, made from locally available rhyolite. The occasional exploitation of other local raw materials, that fulfill distinct complementary needs, highlights the multi-functional nature of the occupation. The slightly younger Shi’bat Dihya 2 (SD2) site is characterized by a less elaborate production of flakes, together with some elements (blades and pointed flakes) similar to those found at SD1, and may indicate a cultural continuity between the two sites. The technological behaviors of the SD1 toolmakers present similarities with those documented from a number of nearly contemporaneous assemblages from southern Arabia, the Levant, the Horn of Africa and North Africa. However, they do not directly conform to any of the techno-complexes typical of the late Middle Paleolithic or late Middle Stone Age from these regions. This period would have witnessed the development of local Middle Paleolithic traditions in the Arabian Peninsula, which suggests more complex settlement dynamics and possible population interactions than commonly inferred by the current models of modern human expansion out of Africa.     

The open-air Paleolithic site of Mirak,northern edge of the Iranian Central Desert (Semnan,Iran): Evidence of repeated human occupations during the late Pleistocene

The northern edge of the Iranian Central Desert has provided valuable evidence of terminal Pleistocene human settlements. Mirak constitutes one of the largest open-air lithic scatters in the region, consisting of eight natural mounds. Fieldwork was initiated in 2015 by the joint Iranian-French program at Mirak 8. Preliminary results have demonstrated at least three successive phases of human occupation during the MIS3: an upper layer with clear Upper Paleolithic affinities and a maximum age of 28 ky, a lower layer with clear Middle Paleolithic affinities that dates around 47 ky, and an intermediate layer with mixed characteristics that can be seen as an intermediate Paleolithic phase which dates between 28 ± 2 and 38 ± 2 ky. At the time when Upper Paleolithic cultures originated in the Zagros Mountains, cultures with clear Middle Paleolithic affinities persisted nearby along the northern edge of the Iranian Central Plateau.     

Steppes, savannahs, forests and phytodiversity reservoirs during the Pleistocene in the Iberian Peninsula

A palaeobotanical analysis of the Pleistocene floras and vegetation in the Iberian Peninsula shows the existence of patched landscapes with Pinus woodlands, deciduous and mixed forests, parklands (savannah-like), shrublands, steppes and grasslands. Extinctions of Arctotertiary woody taxa are recorded during the Early and Middle Pleistocene, but glacial refugia facilitated the survival of a number of temperate, Mediterranean and Ibero-North African woody angiosperms. The responses of Iberian vegetation to climatic changes during the Pleistocene have been spatially and temporarily complex, including rapid changes of vegetation in parallel to orbital and suborbital variability, and situations of multi-centennial resilience or accommodation to climatic changes. Regional characteristics emerged as soon as for the Middle Pleistocene, if not earlier: Ericaceae in the Atlantic coast indicating wetter climate, thermo-mediterranean elements in the south as currently, and broad-leaf trees in the northeastern. Overall, steppe landscapes and open Pinus woodlands prevailed over many continental regions during the cold spells of the Late Pleistocene. The maintenance of a high phytodiversity during the glacials was linked to several refuge zones in the coastal shelves of the Mediterranean and intramountainous valleys. Northern Iberia, especially on coastal areas, was also patched with populations of tree species, and this is not only documented by palaeobotanical data (pollen and charcoal) but also postulated by phylogeographical models.     

The establishment of the North-American mosquito fish,Gambasia holbrooki,in Syrian inland waters)

Abstract

The North-American mosquito fish, Gambusia holbrooki (Girard, 1859), came to Syria in 1929 but only recently spread over large parts of the country. Between 1977 and 1979 Gambusia was studied in various water bodies throughout Syria. The conditions For its successful establishment and its effect on populations of the indigenous cyprinodont fish Aphanius mento (Heckel, 1843) were surveyed. Out of 31 localities where Gambusia and/or Aphanius occurred 17 were inhabited by both species, 11 only by Aphanius and three only by Gambusia. A comparison of these localities indicated that Gambusia is better adapted to high salinity and polluted water whereas Aphanius tolerates stronger currents. Possible negative effects of Gambusia on the indigenous aquatic fauna of Syria are briefly discussed.     

湖北郧西白龙洞中更新世古人类遗址的哺乳动物化石

白龙洞是位于鄂西北部郧西县的一处出土物丰富的古人类洞穴遗址,先后在此出土了8枚古人类牙齿化石、若干石制品和骨制品及大量哺乳动物化石。但有关白龙洞遗址的形成时间却一直存在争议,主要原因之一是动物群没有得到充分研究。基于郧西县文管所和中科院古脊椎所收藏标本,本文首次对白龙洞历年出土的哺乳动物化石进行了综合研究;研究结果表明,白龙洞动物群由32种（含未定种）哺乳动物组成,优势属种是谷氏大额牛、岩羊、野猪及各种鹿类(水鹿、斑鹿、麂、毛冠鹿);此外,还有豪猪、竹鼠、变异狼、貉、豺、猪獾、黑熊、大熊猫、中国硕鬣狗、锯齿剑齿虎、虎、豹、金猫、云豹、剑齿象、苏门犀、梅氏犀、巨貘、鬣羚及水牛等;该动物群缺乏猴类动物,并且豪猪化石也很少,这与其所处的时空位置很不相符;但总体面貌属于大熊猫-剑齿象动物群。白龙洞的大熊猫、中国硕鬣狗、猪獾、虎及巨貘的牙齿测量数值均达到或接近我国各自记录的最大值。白龙洞动物群组成与盐井沟动物群及南京猿人动物群最为接近;从动物群组合及有关属种的演化阶段来综合判断,白龙洞动物群的地质时代应当是中更新世中期。     

Paleoreconstruction of Pleistocene environments of human habitats in the Late Pleistocene and Holocene near the Charyshskii Naves cave, Central Altai, Russia

The results of the study of the small mammal fauna from the Charyshskii Naves cave (Central Altai, Russia) in the 2003 field season are provided. The dynamics of fossil small mammals was studied and the natural habitats of the ancient man were reconstructed on this basis. Two stages of sedimentation, corresponding to the domination of different biotopes, were recognized.     

河南许昌灵井旧石器遗址哺乳动物群的性质及时代探讨

系统记述了在近两年从河南省许昌市灵井旧石器遗址出土的食肉目、长鼻目和奇蹄目化石:宽吻灵猫相似种(Viverra cf. zibetha)、熊未定种(Ursus sp.)、中国硕鬣狗相似种(Pachycrocuta cf. sinensis)、古菱齿象未定种(Palaeoloxodon sp.)、披毛犀(Coelodonta antiquitatis)、梅氏犀(Dicerorhinus mercki)、普通马(Equusca ballus)和蒙古野驴(Equus hemionus),并对灵井哺乳动物群的性质和年代进行了探讨,指出灵井动物群含有的北方种类较多,与北方区的很多动物群可以比较,属于北方区动物群,其生态环境为以平原草地为主,镶嵌有零散的森林,属北温带半湿润-半干旱大陆性季风气候,年平均温度似低于现在。灵井动物群中绝灭种类占44.4%,其时代应为晚更新世早期,其绝对年龄与许家窑接近,约在100kaBP。     

Variability in the vertical structure of the water column and paleoproductivity reconstruction in the central-western Mediterranean during the Late Pleistocene

A sedimentary sequence spanning Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 6 to MIS 2 in core LC07, recovered in the central Mediterranean, has been investigated in order to produce a high-resolution paleoceanographic reconstruction. The changes in productivity deduced from calcareous plankton relative abundances and independently confirmed by the Ba_XS fluctuations are linked to the stability of the water column which is mainly controlled by the water mass temperature. During glacial intervals, productivity was generally enhanced. Oligotrophic and warmer water masses with a deepened seasonal thermocline can be inferred for most of MIS5. The magnetic properties of the sediment show increased occurrences of North Africa dust in the central Mediterranean during cold phases, likely as a consequence of a more efficient erosive process triggered by southward displacement of the intertropical convergence zone. Although increases in both productivity and Saharan dust occurred during cold periods, the atmospheric inputs do not seem to contribute significantly to the fertilization of primary producers. A Shannon Index curve has been used to tentatively synthesize the variations of calcareous nannofossil assemblages through the last 150 kyr. The assemblage diversity sharply increased coincident with the transition from the penultimate glacial to the last interglacial, subsequently low diversity was gradually reached again in the last glacial.     

古尔班通古特沙漠南缘固定沙丘坡面土壤水分动态随机模拟

为揭示土壤水分动态对干旱沙区坡面尺度水文和生态过程的影响机理,基于Rodriguez-Iturbe土壤水分动态随机模型,通过修正模型输入项参数,获取干旱沙区坡面土壤水分动态随机模型,并利用2015—2016年古尔班通古特沙漠南缘固定沙丘坡面生长季根系层土壤水分观测数据及2000—2016年日降水资料,分析研究区生长季坡面土壤水分动态与土壤水分概率密度函数特征,探讨该坡面随机模型参数敏感性及应用可行性.结果表明: 研究区生长季降水分布极不规则,以<5 mm降水为主,降水量主要源于>10 mm降水,降水间隔期以<10 d为主,且东坡次降水量略大于西坡;东、西坡面生长季土壤水分年际变化与降雨分布基本一致,西坡根系层土壤含水率略低于东坡,且各坡面生长季根系层土壤水分均服从正态分布;该坡面随机模型模拟得到的不同坡面生长季根系层土壤水分概率密度函数的曲线特征(峰值及其位置、95%置信区间)与观测结果基本一致,一致性指数(CM)均大于0.5,说明该坡面随机模型能对研究区坡面土壤水分概率密度函数进行高效模拟,具有较好的适用性,可为干旱沙区植被生存或恢复研究及实施荒漠化防治生态建设工程提供理论基础和科学方法.     

乌兰布和沙漠东北部8种沙生灌木生长季末期的光合生理特性

以乌兰布和沙漠东北部的甘蒙柽柳、沙木蓼、霸王、沙冬青、花棒、白刺、梭梭和柠条8种沙生灌木为材料,对沙生灌木生长季末期的光合生理特性进行了研究。结果表明:(1)8种沙生灌木秋季的气孔导度日变化有明显的峰谷;气孔导度日均值最大的为梭梭(0.71 mol.m-2.s-1),最小的为柠条(0.08 mol.m-2.s-1);(2)8种沙生灌木秋季的光合速率日变化均呈现单峰曲线,影响光合速率变化的因素以非气孔限制因素为主;光合速率峰值出现时间以柠条最早(11:30),甘蒙柽柳和沙木蓼最晚(15:30);光合速率日均值最大的为沙木蓼(7.99μmol.m-2.s-1),最小的为柠条(3.40μmol.m-2.s-1);(3)蒸腾速率的日变化除梭梭和柠条呈现单峰曲线外,其余6种灌木呈现出准双峰曲线或双峰曲线;蒸腾速率日均值最大的为梭梭(4.42 mmol.m-2.s-1),最小的为柠条(0.47mmol.m-2.s-1);气孔运动因素对蒸腾作用的影响占据优势;(4)8种沙生灌木的光合水分利用效率在白昼普遍高于早晚,且以柠条的光合水分利用效率日均值最大(7.18μmol.mmol-1),梭梭最小(1.23μmol.mmol-1);蒸腾速率日均值高的沙生灌木光合水分利用效率日均值低,反之亦然。     

Vegetation history and climate changes in West Equatorial Africa during the Late Pleistocene and Holocene, based on a marine pollen diagram from the Congo fan

Palynological investigation of the marine core, GeoB 1008-3, from near the mouth of the Congo river (6°35.6S/10°19.1E), provides information about the changes in vegetation and climate in West Equatorial Africa during the last 190 ka. The pollen diagram is divided into zones 1–6 which are considered to correspond in time with the marine isotope stages 1–6. Oscillations in temperature and moisture are indicated during the cold stage 6. During stage 5, two cooler periods (5d and 5b) can be shown with an expansion of Podocarpus forests to lower elevations on the expense of lowland rain forest. Extended mangrove swamps existed along the coast in times of high sea level (stages 5 and 1).     

Multiple genetic divergences and population expansions of a Mediterranean sandfly,Phlebotomus ariasi,in Europe during the Pleistocene glacial cycles

Phlebotomus ariasi is one of the two sandflies transmitting the causative agent of zoonotic leishmaniasis, Leishmania infantum, in France and Iberia, and provides a rare case study of the postglacial re-colonization of France by a Mediterranean species. Four DNA sequences were analysed—mitochondrial cytochrome b (cyt b), nuclear elongation factor-1α (EF-1α) and two anonymous nuclear loci—for 14–15 French populations and single populations from northeast Spain, northwest Spain, Portugal and Morocco. The presence of cryptic sibling species was not revealed by phylogenetic analyses and testing for reproductive isolation between sympatric populations defined by the two most divergent cyt b haplogroups. No locus was shown to be under positive directional or balancing selection and, therefore, molecular variation was explained demographically. Each nuclear locus showed shallow isolation by distance from Portugal to the French Pyrenees, but for both cyt b and EF-1α there was then a step change to the upland Massif Central, where leading-edge populations showed low diversity at all loci. Multiple genetic divergences and population expansions were detected by analyses of cyt b and dated to the Pleistocene. Endemicity of one cyt b sub-lineage suggested the presence of a refuge north of the Pyrenees during the last glacial period. Monopolization of the Massif Central by genetically differentiated populations of P. ariasi might possibly hinder the northwards spread of leishmaniasis.