端粒结合蛋白与端粒长度调控

真核细胞端粒DNA序列的丢失与细胞的衰老及凋亡有关.端粒酶的激活可维持端粒长度并使细胞获得无限增殖的能力.端粒结合蛋白则可能通过调节端粒酶或其他相关因子的行为参与对端粒长度的调控.近年有关端粒结合蛋白的研究取得了突破性进展并在此基础上建立了端粒长度调控模型.     

The Individual Blood Cell Telomere Attrition Rate Is Telomere Length Dependent

Age-associated telomere shortening is a well documented feature of peripheral blood cells in human population studies, but it is not known to what extent these data can be transferred to the individual level. Telomere length (TL) in two blood samples taken at ~10 years interval from 959 individuals was investigated using real-time PCR. TL was also measured in 13 families from a multigenerational cohort. As expected, we found an age-related decline in TL over time (r=–0.164, P<0.001, n=959). However, approximately one-third of the individuals exhibited a stable or increased TL over a decade. The individual telomere attrition rate was inversely correlated with initial TL at a highly significant level (r=–0.752, P<0.001), indicating that the attrition rate was most pronounced in individuals with long telomeres at baseline. In accordance, the age-associated telomere attrition rate was more prominent in families with members displaying longer telomeres at a young age (r=–0.691, P<0.001). Abnormal blood TL has been reported at diagnosis of various malignancies, but in the present study there was no association between individual telomere attrition rate or prediagnostic TL and later tumor development. The collected data strongly suggest a TL maintenance mechanism acting in vivo, providing protection of short telomeres as previously demonstrated in vitro. Our findings might challenge the hypothesis that individual TL can predict possible life span or later tumor development.     

定量荧光原位杂交测定端粒长度

目的:应用定量荧光原位杂交(Q-FISH)方法测定端粒长度。方法:选取4种端粒长度均一的标准细胞株采用Q-FISH的方法做出荧光亮度与端粒长度的标准曲线,从而得出实验细胞株的端粒长度,与DNA印迹法测定末端限制性片段(TRF)长度进行二者之间的相关性分析。结果:检测荧光强度的最佳线性曝光时间为400ms,相对于DNA印迹法,定量荧光原位杂交(Q-FISH)法所需标本量少,实验周期短,端粒长度结果与Southern杂交法具有很好的相关性。结论:采用定量荧光原位杂交方法测端粒长度具有重复性好、精确可靠的特点,适用于对珍贵标本的端粒改变进行分析。     

Extreme Telomere Length Dimorphism in the Tasmanian Devil and Related Marsupials Suggests Parental Control of Telomere Length

Telomeres, specialised structures that protect chromosome ends, play a critical role in preserving chromosome integrity. Telomere dynamics in the Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus harrisii) are of particular interest in light of the emergence of devil facial tumour disease (DFTD), a transmissible malignancy that causes rapid mortality and threatens the species with extinction. We used fluorescent in situ hybridisation to investigate telomere length in DFTD cells, in healthy Tasmanian devils and in four closely related marsupial species. Here we report that animals in the Order Dasyuromorphia have chromosomes characterised by striking telomere length dimorphism between homologues. Findings in sex chromosomes suggest that telomere length dimorphism may be regulated by events in the parental germlines. Long telomeres on the Y chromosome imply that telomere lengthening occurs during spermatogenesis, whereas telomere diminution occurs during oogenesis. Although found in several somatic cell tissue types, telomere length dimorphism was not found in DFTD cancer cells, which are characterised by uniformly short telomeres. This is, to our knowledge, the first report of naturally occurring telomere length dimorphism in any species and suggests a novel strategy of telomere length control. Comparative studies in five distantly related marsupials and a monotreme indicate that telomere dimorphism evolved at least 50 million years ago.     

流式原位荧光杂交——测定端粒长度

端粒是染色体末端ＤＮＡ重复序列与特异结合蛋白的复合体。脊椎动物端粒重复序列是 5′ＴＴＡＧＧＧ3′。端粒长度可以作为细胞的“分裂时钟” ,反映细胞的分裂能力。作为染色体末端的帽状结构 ,端粒还有其他生物学功能 :保证染色体完整性 ,使真正的遗传信息得到完整复制 ;保护染色体末端 ,防止染色体异常重组而影响细胞分裂 ;指导染色体与核膜相接。端粒 端粒酶系统对细胞增殖、细胞衰老、细胞永生化、癌变、发育生物学、ＨＩＶ感染的免疫反应、免疫缺陷等有重要意义[1～ 3] 。因此端粒动力学的研究十分重要。1 .ＤＮＡ印迹杂交端粒长度测…     

Telomere Length Distribution and Southern Blot Analysis

Southern blot analysis of terminal restriction fragments (TRFs) is the standard method for quantitative examination of telomere length distributions. Since TRFs contain a subtelomeric component, central parameters of the TRF distributionn(L) such as the arithmetic mean (M) or the median (Me) cannot be derived directly from Southern blot data, i.e. from the optical density distributionOD(L). Several estimates have been applied instead; the seeming arithmetic meanA, the “center of mass”C, and the positions of maximal (P) and half-maximal optical density (P). We show thatC>A>Mfor any non-truncated distributionsn(L), andP>M>P1/2 for any symmetrical unimodaln(L).Symmetric appearance on a Southern blot, however, suggests positive skewness ofn(L). Thus, alognormalform ofn(L) may be considered. Then,C>A>M>P=Me>P. Alternatively, aWeibulldistribution may be assumed. The latter is compatible with negative feedback-regulation of the telomere lengths. Using the maximum likelihood method we compare these distributions with FISH-data on telomere lengths in different cell types. The fit of the lognormal distribution is clearly superior. Lognormal genesis may relate to telomere breakage and recombination.Truncation of the upper end of the TRF distribution is possible due to Southern blot artifacts. Thereby, the order of the estimates may change toP>C>A. Having minimal sensitivity to truncation,Pseems to be the optimal choice. however, the variability ofPis high since peakedness ofOD(L) and DNA length resolution are inversely related.     

Telomerase Activity and Telomere Length in Daphnia

Telomeres, comprised of short repetitive sequences, are essential for genome stability and have been studied in relation to cellular senescence and aging. Telomerase, the enzyme that adds telomeric repeats to chromosome ends, is essential for maintaining the overall telomere length. A lack of telomerase activity in mammalian somatic cells results in progressive shortening of telomeres with each cellular replication event. Mammals exhibit high rates of cell proliferation during embryonic and juvenile stages but very little somatic cell proliferation occurs during adult and senescent stages. The telomere hypothesis of cellular aging states that telomeres serve as an internal mitotic clock and telomere length erosion leads to cellular senescence and eventual cell death. In this report, we have examined telomerase activity, processivity, and telomere length in Daphnia, an organism that grows continuously throughout its life. Similar to insects, Daphnia telomeric repeat sequence was determined to be TTAGG and telomerase products with five-nucleotide periodicity were generated in the telomerase activity assay. We investigated telomerase function and telomere lengths in two closely related ecotypes of Daphnia with divergent lifespans, short-lived D. pulex and long-lived D. pulicaria. Our results indicate that there is no age-dependent decline in telomere length, telomerase activity, or processivity in short-lived D. pulex. On the contrary, a significant age dependent decline in telomere length, telomerase activity and processivity is observed during life span in long-lived D. pulicaria. While providing the first report on characterization of Daphnia telomeres and telomerase activity, our results also indicate that mechanisms other than telomere shortening may be responsible for the strikingly short life span of D. pulex.     

Reduced Fetal Telomere Length in Gestational Diabetes

Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is an important complication of pregnancy that poses significant threats to women and their offspring. Telomere length shortens as cellular damage increases and is associated with metabolic diseases. Telomere length in fetal leucocytes was determined in 82 infants of women with GDM (N = 82) and 65 normal pregnant women (N = 65). Women with preeclampsia (N = 45) and gestational hypertension (N = 23) were also studied. In the GDM group, telomere length was significantly shorter than normal pregnancy (P = 0.028), but there were no significant differences in fetal telomere length between preeclampsia and normal pregnancy (P = 0.841) and between gestational hypertension and normal pregnancy (P = 0.561). Regression analysis revealed that fetal telomere length was significantly associated with intrauterine exposure to GDM (P = 0.027 after adjustment for maternal age, gestational age at delivery, birth weight and fetal gender). Shortened telomere length may increase the risk of metabolic diseases in adulthood of GDM offspring.     

Telomere Structure,Replication and Length Maintenance

Telomeres are the termini of linear eukaryotic chromosomes consisting of tandem repeats of DNA and proteins that bind to these repeat sequences. Telomeres ensure the complete replication of chromosome ends, impart protection to ends from nucleolytic degradation, end-to-end fusion, and guide the localization of chromosomes within the nucleus. In addition, a combination of genetic, biochemical, and molecular biological approaches have implicated key roles for telomeres in diverse cellular processes such as regulation of gene expression, cell division, cell senescence, and cancer. This review focuses on recent advances in our understanding of the organization of telomeres, telomere replication, proteins that bind telomeric DNA, and the establishment of telomere length equilibrium.     

Processes Linking Religious Involvement and Telomere Length

Although numerous studies suggest that religious involvement is associated with better health and longer life expectancies, it is unclear whether these general patterns extend to cellular aging. The mechanisms linking indicators of religious involvement with indicators of cellular aging are also undefined. We employed longitudinal data from the 2004 and 2008 Health and Retirement Study, a national probability sample of Americans aged 50 and older, to test whether average telomere length varied according to level of religious attendance. We also tested several potential mechanisms. Our results showed that respondents who attended religious services more frequently in 2004 also exhibited fewer stressful events, lower rates of smoking, fewer symptoms of depression, and lower levels of C-reactive protein in 2008. Respondents who increased their level of attendance from 2004 to 2008 also exhibited lower rates of smoking in 2008. Although religious attendance was not directly associated with telomere length, our mediation analyses revealed significant indirect effects through depression and smoking, but not stressful events or C-reactive protein. We conclude that religious attendance may promote telomere length indirectly by reducing symptoms of depression and the risk of smoking. There was no evidence to support stressful events or C-reactive protein as mechanisms of religious attendance.     

Telomere Length and Genetic Anticipation in Lynch Syndrome

Telomere length variation has been associated with increased risk of several types of tumors, and telomere shortening, with genetic anticipation in a number of genetic diseases including hereditary cancer syndromes. No conclusive studies have been performed for Lynch syndrome, a hereditary colorectal cancer syndrome caused by germline mutations in the DNA mismatch repair genes. Here we evaluate telomere length in Lynch syndrome, both as a cancer risk factor and as a mechanism associated with anticipation in the age of cancer onset observed in successive generations of Lynch syndrome families. Leukocyte telomere length was measured in 244 mismatch repair gene mutation carriers from 96 Lynch syndrome families and in 234 controls using a monochrome multiplex quantitative PCR method. Cancer-affected mutation carriers showed significantly shorter telomeres than cancer-free mutation carriers. In addition, cancer-affected carriers showed the most pronounced shortening of telomere length with age, compared with unaffected carriers. The anticipation in the age of cancer onset observed in successive generations was not associated with telomere shortening, although, interestingly, all mother-son pairs showed telomere shortening. In conclusion, cancer-affected mismatch repair gene mutation carriers have distinct telomere-length pattern and dynamics. However, anticipation in the age of onset is not explained by telomere shortening. Pending further study, our findings suggest that telomere attrition might explain the previously reported dependence of cancer risk on the parent-of-origin of mismatch repair gene mutations.     

Telomere Length Influences Cancer Cell Differentiation In Vivo

Limitless reproductive potential is one of the hallmarks of cancer cells. This ability is due to the maintenance of telomeres, erosion of which causes cellular senescence or death. While most cancer cells activate telomerase, a telomere-elongating enzyme, it remains elusive as to why cancer cells often maintain shorter telomeres than the cells in the surrounding normal tissues. Here, we show that forced telomere elongation in cancer cells promotes their differentiation in vivo. We elongated the telomeres of human prostate cancer cells that possess short telomeres by enhancing their telomerase activity. The resulting cells had long telomeres and retained the ability to form tumors in nude mice. Strikingly, these tumors exhibited many duct-like structures and reduced N-cadherin expression, reminiscent of well-differentiated adenocarcinoma. These changes were caused by telomere elongation and not by enhanced telomerase activity. Gene expression profiling revealed that tumor formation was accompanied by the expression of innate immune system-related genes, which have been implicated in maintaining tumor cells in an undifferentiated state and poor-prognosis cancers. In tumors derived from the telomere-elongated cells, upregulation of such gene sets is not observed. Our observations suggest a functional contribution of short telomeres to tumor malignancy by regulation of cancer cell differentiation.     

Telomere Length Variation in Juvenile Acute Myocardial Infarction

Leukocyte telomere length (LTL) provides a potential marker of biological age, closely related to the endothelial dysfunction and consequently to the atherosclerotic process. To investigate the relationship between the LTL and the risk of premature acute myocardial infarction and to evaluate the predictive value of LTL on the onset of major cardiovascular events, 199 patients from 18 to 48 years old with first diagnosis of acute myocardial infarction were enrolled and were matched with 190 controls for sex and age (±1 year). Clinical data and coronary artery disease were evaluated at enrollment and at follow up. LTL was measured at enrollment using a quantitative PCR-based method. No significant differences were observed in LTL between cases and controls (p = 0.20) and with the presence of coronary artery disease in patients (p = 0.47). Hypercholesterolemic cases presented LTL significantly longer than cases without hypercholesterolemia (t/s: 0.82±0.16 p = 0.79 and t/s norm: 0.79±0.19 p = 0.01), as confirmed in multivariate regression analysis (p = 0.005, β = 0.09). Furthermore, multivariate regression analysis showed LTL significantly shorter in hypertensive cases than in normotensive cases (p = 0.04, β = −0.07). One hundred seventy-one cases (86%) ended the average follow up of 9±5 years, 92 (54%) presented a major cardiovascular event. At multivariate regression analysis the LTL detected at enrollment did not represent a predictive factor of major cardiovascular events nor it significantly impacted with cumulative events. Based on present cohort of young Italian patients, the LTL did not represent a marker of acute myocardial infarction nor had a predictive role at medium term follow up.