Preface: The phylogeny, fossil record and ecological diversity of ostracod crustaceans

After more than two centuries of research, more than 65,000 living and fossil ostracod species have been described and studied, yet much remains to be learned about this ancient, widespread and diverse group of bivalved arthropods. Their higher classification and phylogeny are subjects of vigorous debate, as is their position in the broader picture of crustacean phylogeny. At the same time, major advances in our understanding of ostracod lineages and their relationships are resulting from the application of innovative approaches and techniques. This preface provides a contextual overview of the 15 contributions to this volume, which resulted from the 14th International Symposium on Ostracoda (ISO2001) held in 2001at Shizuoka, Japan. As such it provides a cross-section of topics at the forefront of research on the evolution and diversity of Ostracoda, and indicates directions for future work.     

Comparative study of two largely infilled estuaries: The Eden Estuary (Scotland) and the Ria de Foz (Spain)

Two small estuaries, the Eden Estuary of eastern Scotland and the Ria de Foz of north west Spain, are compared. The former was glaciated during the Pleistocene, the latter was not. These water bodies are macrotidal, of similar size, entrance morphology and advanced state of sedimentary infill. There are, however, major differences in their sedimentary dynamics partly as a result of anthropogenic interference. A training wall partially confines the main channel of the Ria de Foz, whereas the Eden Estuary lacks comparable structures. Prior to the extension of the Foz wall, the rate of migration of a spit at the mouth of the ria was up to one order of magnitude greater than that of a similar spit in the Eden Estuary. Following completion of the wall, the rate of spit erosion in the Ria de Foz increased to two orders of magnitude greater than that of natural processes in the Eden. A beach nourishment scheme at Foz, relocating sediment deposited within the Ria, has succeeded in stabilising the spit and substantially reducing erosion. Relative stability of land and sea may have existed over the last 5,000 years at Foz but not at the mouth of the Eden, where isostatic uplift has exceeded sea level rise. The requisite stability for complete sedimentary infill at Foz may not exist owing to the predicted worldwide rise of sea level due to global warming. The rise of sea and land levels around the Eden Estuary are now believed to be counterbalanced, providing the necessary geological conditions for complete sedimentary infill.     

The intertidal soft-bottom infaunal macrobenthos in three Basque estuaries (Gulf of Biscay): a feeding guild approach

Feeding types of the infaunal macrobenthos of the intertidal soft-bottom communities from the estuaries of La Arena, Plentzia and Gernika, along the Basque coast (Gulf of Biscay) were studied in relation to habitat conditions, characteristics of each estuary and seasonal variation. General feeding structure observed in La Arena estuary was different from the other estuaries: omnivores were dominant, both in number of species and individuals, while surface deposit-feeders were the main feeding group in Plentzia and Gernika both in the finest sediment communities and in the sandy ones. Subsurface deposit-feeders were abundant in Plentzia and Gernika but scarce in La Arena estuary. Feeding types were related to the environmental variables. Sandy sediment communities presented a more balanced proportion among different feeding types and showed higher values of feeding diversity; suspension-feeders and predators were abundant only in that communities. By estuaries, feeding diversity was higher in Gernika and lower in La Arena. Seasonal variation in feeding diversity was observed, explained by changes in density of certain feeding groups; a common pattern of variation was found in Gernika communities, with an increase in June and a decrease in September. Oscillation of this index in Plentzia and La Arena depended on the estuary and the different communities; nevertheless a decrease of feeding diversity in September was commonly observed. Finally, feeding structure observed in our estuaries was compared to those described in coastal areas with organic enriched sediments, in order to assess the degree of perturbation of the environment based on the relative dominance of a certain feeding type in the macrobenthos.     

The origins of modern nonmarine ostracod faunas: evidence from the Late Cretaceous and Early Palaeogene of Mongolia

The Cretaceous and Tertiary development of Mongolian non-marine ostracod faunas is reviewed. During the Late Cretaceous and Early Palaeogene, representatives of the Cypridoidea were widespread and common, Cytheroidea less so and the Darwinuloidea comparatively rare. The evolutionary history of the subfamily Talicyprideinae is considered, with reference to the genera Talicypridea, Altanicypris, Khandiaand Bogdocypris. It is suggested that the extinct Talicyprideinae were related to the mid-Cretaceous to Recent subfamily Cypridinae (e.g. the genus Cypris), both belonging to the family Cyprididae. It is shown that early representatives of the Cyprididae, one of the most diverse non-marine cypridoidean families today, were present from Early Cretaceous onwards (e.g. Lycopterocypris, Mongolocypris), alongside the dominant Cretaceous cypridoideans, the Cyprideidae (e.g. Cypridea), which became extinct in the Palaeogene.     

Comparative proteomic analysis of planktonic and immobilized Pseudomonas aeruginosa cells: a multivariate statistical approach

The protein maps of Pseudomonas aeruginosa cells from two natural (attached) and one artificial (gel-entrapped) immobilized-cell (IC) systems, together with their free (suspended) counterparts, were compared after incubation for 18 or 48 h in a minimal salt medium. Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to interpret the variations in protein spot densities that were observed on electropherogram obtained by two-dimensional electrophoresis (2-DE). PCA of the 2-DE data, a matrix of 933 rows (observations, i.e., spot density values) and 12 columns (variables, i.e., incubation conditions), in which observations were standardized horizontally, extracted four principal components (PCs) accounting for 78.75% of the variability in the protein expression profiles. PC1 opposed the two modes of growth (planktonic and immobilized) while PC2 discriminated between the incubation times of free cell cultures. The incubation conditions of ICs, including the immobilization procedure (entrapment vs attachment) and the nature of the biofilm substratum, were fairly separated in PC3xPC4. The dependence of the protein patterns on the cell immobilization process was further illustrated by the identification of a number of peptides whose amount remained unchanged or was altered in ICs compared to free bacteria. These results reinforce the topical assertion that bacteria in the immobilized state display a specific physiological behavior but also question the existence of a unique IC phenotype.     

Estimation of fluxes to the ocean from mega-tidal estuaries under moderate climates and the problems they present

Evaluation of the quantity of estuarine flux material carried into the ocean, is difficult. High tides produce major oscillations in ocean waters and suspended matter (S.M.) near river mouths and, therefore, direct measurements at the river outlet do not represent real expulsions of S.M. The temperate climate, characterised by important seasonal variations throughout the year, induces significant hydrologic variations and consequently material fluxes into the ocean. Hence, it is difficult to represent measurements with respect to the time, season and especially the year, during which they take place.The Gironde estuary is a good example of this type of estuary, and shows that the evaluation of flux material can only be made from the following equation: expulsion = fluviatile inputs-deposits. Measurements are made from the fluxes of S.M. and from a few metals such as Zn, Cu, and Pb.It took three consecutive years (1976–1979) to carry out our measurements, which helped us to develop a general idea of the chief components of the system and to determine the flux variations.According to the results, important variations occur from year to year, particularly as far as S. M. is concerned. The estuary, thanks to its significant oscillating stock of S.M. (turbidity maximum), behaves as a regulator for the metals. In a surplus year it acts as a sink, and in a deficit year it acts as a source.     

Historical and Comparative Study of the First Spanish Vertebrate Paleoichnological Record and Bibliographic Review of the Spanish Chirotheriid Footprints

In 1897, Salvador Calderón y Arana published a study of the first vertebrate footprint from Spain. It was found in the Buntsandstein of Rillo de Gallo (Guadalajara), probably in the Rillo Mudstone and Sandstone Formation (middle Anisian-Landian). This isolated left pes imprint was classified as “Cheirotherium” sp. We conducted a historical study of this specimen, mentioned by several authors for more than a century, but never analyzed in detail. This well-preserved footprint, in which skin marks are present, is described here. Its characters are compared with those of valid chirotheriid ichnogenera. This work is complemented with a bibliographic analysis of the chirotheriid footprints recorded in Spain. This record is remarkable for its abundance and ichnodiversity.     

Zooplankton invasions: a brief review,plus two case studies from the northeast Pacific Ocean

Invasions of aquatic habitats by non-indigenous species (NIS), including zooplankton, are occurring at an alarming rate and are causing global concern. Although hundreds of such invasions have now been documented, surprisingly little is known about the basic biology and ecology of these invaders in their new habitats. Here we provide an overview of the published literature on NIS zooplankton, separated by life history (holoplankton vs. meroplankton), habitat (marine, estuarine, freshwater), and biological level of organization or topic (e.g. distribution and range extension, physiology, behavior, feeding, community impacts, ecosystem dynamics, etc). Amongst the many findings generated by our literature search, perhaps the most striking is the paucity of studies on community and ecosystem level impacts of NIS zooplankton, especially in marine and estuarine systems. We also present some results from two ongoing studies of invasive zooplankton in the northeast Pacific Ocean – Pseudodiaptomus inopinus in Washington and Oregon coastal estuaries, and Tortanus dextrilobatus in San Francisco Bay. Both of these Asian copepods have recently expanded their range and can at times be extremely abundant (10³ m^–3). We also examine some aspects of the trophic (predator–prey) ecology of these two invasive copepods, and find that they are likely to be important in the flow of material and energy in the systems in which they now pervade, although their impacts at the ecosystem level remain to be quantified. Finally, the findings of both our literature search and our two case studies of invasive zooplankton lead us to make several recommendations for future research.     

Integrated analysis of tropical trees growth: a multivariate approach

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: One of the problems analysing cause-effect relationships of growth and environmental factors is that a single factor could be correlated with other ones directly influencing growth. One attempt to understand tropical trees' growth cause-effect relationships is integrating research about anatomical, physiological and environmental factors that influence growth in order to develop mathematical models. The relevance is to understand the nature of the process of growth and to model this as a function of the environment. METHODS: The relationships of Aphananthe monoica, Pleuranthodendron lindenii and Psychotria costivenia radial growth and phenology with environmental factors (local climate, vertical strata microclimate and physical and chemical soil variables) were evaluated from April 2000 to September 2001. The association among these groups of variables was determined by generalized canonical correlation analysis (GCCA), which considers the probable associations of three or more data groups and the selection of the most important variables for each data group. KEY RESULTS: The GCCA allowed determination of a general model of relationships among tree phenology and radial growth with climate, microclimate and soil factors. A strong influence of climate in phenology and radial growth existed. Leaf initiation and cambial activity periods were associated with maximum temperature and day length, and vascular tissue differentiation with soil moisture and rainfall. The analyses of individual species detected different relationships for the three species. CONCLUSIONS: The analyses of the individual species suggest that each one takes advantage in a different way of the environment in which they are growing, allowing them to coexist.     

Characteristics of the ichthyofaunas of southwestern Australian estuaries,including comparisons with holarctic estuaries and estuaries elsewhere in temperate Australia: A review

Data on the species compositions and the ages, sizes, reproductive biology, habitats and diets of the main species in the ichthyofaunas of seven estuaries in temperate southwestern Australia have been collated. Twenty-two species spawn in these estuaries, of which 21 complete their lifecycles in the estuary. The latter group, which includes several species of atherinids and gobies with short lifecycles, make far greater contributions to the total numbers of fish in the shallows of these estuaries than in those of holarctic estuaries, such as the Severn Estuary in the United Kingdom. This is presumably related in part to far less extreme tidal water movements and the maintenance of relatively high salinities during the dry summers, and thus to more favourable conditions for spawning and larval development. However, since estuaries in southwestern Australia have tended to become closed for periods, there would presumably also have been selection pressures in favour of any members of marine species that were able to spawn in an estuary when that estuary became landlocked. Furthermore, the deep saline waters, under the marked haloclines that form in certain regions during heavy freshwater discharge in winter, act as refugia for certain estuarine species. The contributions of estuarine-spawning species to total fish numbers in the shallows varied markedly from 33 or 34% in two permanently open estuaries to ≥ 95% in an intermittently open estuary, a seasonally closed estuary and a permanently open estuary on the south coast, in which recruitment of the 0 + age class of marine species was poor. The larger estuarine species can live for several years and reach total lengths of ~ 700 mm and some estuarine species move out into deeper waters as they increase in size. Several marine species use southwestern Australian estuaries as nursery areas for protracted periods. However, sudden, marked increases in freshwater discharge in winter and resultant precipitous declines in salinity in the shallows, and in other regions where haloclines are not formed, are frequently accompanied by rapid and pronounced changes in ichthyofaunal composition, partly due to the emigration of certain marine species. In contrast, the ichthyofaunal compositions of macrotidal holarctic estuaries undergo annual, cyclical changes, due largely to the sequential entry of the juveniles of different marine species for short periods. The ichthyofaunal compositions of the narrow entrance channels, wide basins and saline riverine reaches of large, permanently open southwestern Australian estuaries vary, reflecting the marked tendency for some species to be restricted mainly to one or two of these regions. Comparative data indicate that the characteristics determined for ichthyofaunas in southwestern Australian estuaries apply in general to estuaries elsewhere in temperate Australia.     

Preface: Ostracoda and the four pillars of evolutionary wisdom

Morphology, palaeontology, genetics and ecology are the main scientific domains contributing theories, concepts and new data to evolutionary biology. Ostracods are potentially very good model organisms for evolutionary studies because they combine an excellent fossil record with a wide extant distribution and, therefore, allow studies on both patterns and processes leading to extant diversity. This preface provides an overview of the 15 contributions to the present volume and concludes that this set of papers supports the claim that ostracod studies are situated in all main evolutionary domains.     

Fish communities in temporarily open/closed estuaries from the warm- and cool-temperate regions of South Africa: A review

The majority of estuaries along the coastline of southern Africa are termed temporarily open/closed estuaries (TOCEs) and are closed off from the sea for varying periods by a sandbar which forms at the mouth. It is therefore important to understand the processes occurring within TOCEs and their importance to fishes in order to make sound management recommendations. Estuaries along the coast of South Africa and their associated fish assemblages are biogeographically distinct and occur in either a subtropical, warm-temperate or cool-temperate zone. There are 125 TOCEs found within the cool-temperate and warm-temperate zones. Most fish species found in TOCEs are the juveniles of marine taxa that breed at sea. Permanently open estuaries generally have a higher diversity of species than TOCEs, but TOCEs still provide important nursery areas for many marine species and numerically often have a higher proportion of estuarine resident species. Important taxa in terms of abundance and biomass in warm-temperate TOCEs include the sparids Rhabdosargus holubi and Lithognathus lithognathus, several mugilid species, estuarine residents (particularly Gilchristella aestuaria and Atherina breviceps) and the freshwater cichlid Oreochromis mossambicus. The diversity of fishes in cool-temperate TOCEs is low when compared with warm-temperate systems and Liza richardsonii tends to dominate catches by number and mass in most systems. Several species recorded in TOCEs show clear longitudinal distribution trends. For example Atherina breviceps is generally more abundant in the lower reaches of estuaries. Mouth state, particularly the frequency, timing and duration of mouth opening plays a key role in determining species richness, composition, diversity and abundance in TOCEs. Mouth state is directly linked to freshwater input. Reduced river inflow leads to prolonged mouth closure and shorter open phases, which inhibits immigration and emigration of marine fish species between estuaries and the sea. Understanding of the effects of various processes occurring within these systems, particularly variation in freshwater input, on the biota of these important systems facilitates the development of informed management recommendations.     

Increasing ecological inference from high throughput sequencing of fungi in the environment through a tagging approach

High throughput sequencing methods are widely used in analyses of microbial diversity, but are generally applied to small numbers of samples, which precludes characterization of patterns of microbial diversity across space and time. We have designed a primer-tagging approach that allows pooling and subsequent sorting of numerous samples, which is directed to amplification of a region spanning the nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacers and partial large subunit from fungi in environmental samples. To test the method for phylogenetic biases, we constructed a controlled mixture of four taxa representing the Chytridiomycota, Zygomycota, Ascomycota and Basidiomycota. Following cloning and colony restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis, we found no significant difference in representation in 19 of the 23 tested primers. We also generated a clone library from two soil DNA extracts using two primers for each extract and compared 456 clone sequences. Community diversity statistics and contingency table tests applied to counts of operational taxonomic units revealed that the two DNA extracts differed significantly, while the pairs of tagged primers from each extract were indistinguishable. Similar results were obtained using UniFrac phylogenetic comparisons. Together, these results suggest that the pig-tagged primers can be used to increase ecological inference in high throughput sequencing projects on fungi.     

The Lower-Middle Pleistocene succession of the Coastal Tuscany (Central Italy): new stratigraphic and palaeoecological data based on the ostracod fauna

The Lower-early Middle Pleistocene succession of the Coastal Tuscany is known to comprise three marine cycles: (I) a Santernian-Emilian cycle; (II) a Sicilian (“small Gephyrocapsa” Zone) cycle; (III) a third cycle, referred through stratigraphic and palaeoethnological arguments to the late Sicilian-early Middle Pleistocene, including the fluvial-transitional San Marco fm and the shoreface to backshore sandy-arenitic deposits of the correlatable Bibbona and Casa Saracino formations, outcropping in the Bibbona (Lower Cecina Valley) and Rosignano areas respectively. Conversely to the older cycles the third one has been poorly studied and its chronology and depositional history have remained somewhat uncertain. With the aim to fill this gap of knowledge the sedimentary record exposed in the Rosignano and Bibbona areas was the object of new on field investigations and microfaunal content (chiefly ostracods) analyses. Furthermore, this has represented a good opportunity to enhance our knowledge of the Pleistocene Mediterranean ostracods. The main results achieved are in synthesis the followings. (1) Stratigraphic and palaeoenvironmental significance of ostracods from the first cycle is consistent with literature data. Unexpectedly the recovered assemblages comprise both warm-temperate species (e.g. Cytherelloidea beckmanni Barbeito-Gonzales, Propontocypris solida Ruggieri, Verrucocythereis bulbuspinata (Uliczny), which suggest a relatively warm climate phase, and an yet undescribed species of Ruggieria, a genus previously thought to be represented in the Italian Lower Pleistocene only by Ruggieria nuda Moyes. (2) In agreement with previous studies, sediments of the San Marco fm in the Rosignano area are referable to a floodplain-coastal lagoonal setting. Divergently from literature data, in the Bibbona area the unit exhibits vuggy carbonate glaebules and rizhoconcrections and yields very rare fresh-brackish water ostracods and marine microfaunas regarded as reworked. Despite interpretation of these sediments still poses many problems, we speculate that they represent marine deposits reworked in a poorly drained continental-transitional environment, which experienced pedogenic alteration. Furthermore, the common occurrence of the ostracode Aurila puncticruciata Ruggieri seems to support the supposition that reworked deposits included marine Sicilian sediments completely eroded and presumably correlatable to the Fabbriche fm. (3) Lithological-sedimentological features and absence of autochthonous macro-microfossils indicate that the Casa Saracino fm and most of the Bibbona unit accumulated in a backshore environment dominated by aeolian deposition. Only locally the latter unit includes shallow marine deposits with fairly rich ostracod faunas, which confidently indicate an age not younger than the Sicilian sensu Ruggieri and Sprovieri [Riv. Mineraria Siciliana 151/153 (1975) 1]. Thus, it seems possible that the Coastal Tuscany succession includes two marine cycles, which developed within the Sicilian.     

Comparative study of Spanish and Italian terrestrial small mammal coenoses from different biotopes in Mediterranean peninsular tip regions

A comparison of terrestrial small mammal coenoses belonging to nine different biotopes in the tips of the Iberian and Italian peninsulas was carried out using the pitfall trapping method. The influence of both habitat type and peninsular effect on composition of small mammal coenoses was analysed. In Southern Italy, 203 specimens belonging to seven species were trapped: Suncus etruscus (Savi, 1822), Crocidura suaveolens (Pallas, 1811), C. leucodon (Hermann, 1780), Microtus savii (de Sélys-Longchamps, 1838), Apodemus sylvaticus (L., 1758), A. flavicollis (Melchior, 1834) and Mus musculus domesticus Schwarz & Schwarz, 1943. In Southern Spain 428 specimens belonging to five species were trapped: Suncus etruscus, Crocidura russula (Hermann, 1780), Microtus duodecimcostatus (de Sélys-Longchamps, 1839), Apodemus sylvaticus and Mus spretus Lataste, 1883. The relative density of small mammals occurring in the nine Spanish sampling stations was twice that recorded in the Italian stations; however the number of species recorded in the different biotopes show similar mean values, ranging from three to five in Andalusia and from three to six in Calabria. Apodemus sylvaticus was the dominant species in the Calabrian stations, whereas Crocidura russula prevailed in Andalusia. The biotic diversity values are very similar in the Calabrian and Andalusian biotopes. By contrast, the Insectivora/Rodentia ratio was always higher in Andalusia. The more xerophytic biotopes showed greater similarities between the communities in Southern Spain and Southern Italy, while the cooler biotopes differed between these two peninsulas.     

Diatoms of Lake Peipsi-Pihkva: a floristic and ecological review

463 taxa of diatoms have been recorded from the pelagic and littoral plankton, benthos and periphyton of Lake Peipsi-Pihkva. This typical eutrophic plain lake has many common features with large lakes of both Central and North Europe. As to the richness of diatom taxa, L. Peipsi- Pihkva surpasses other eutrophic lowland lakes, which can be explained by the size of this lake, and by the variety of living conditions in it. The list of taxa as well as notes about rare and phytogeographically interesting diatoms are presented.Deceased.     

The PERLA system in the Czech Republic: a multivariate approach for assessing the ecological status of running waters

The assessment of running water quality has a long tradition in the Czech Republic, but in the past it focused on the evaluation of organic pollution using the saprobic system. Considering the modern trends of stream ecological status evaluation in water management a new assessment system named PERLA was developed. The system is a complex of biological methods of ecological status assessment of running waters and connected activities in the Czech Republic. It involves 300 reference sites with respective biotic and abiotic data and a prediction model using a newly developed software HOBENT. The model generally follows the published mathematical principles of RIVPACS and represents the site specific and stressor non-specific approaches. The HOBENT software allows the prediction of the target assemblage of benthic macroinvertebrates for any site based on a set of environmental variables (latitude, longitude, distance from source, altitude, slope, catchment area, and stream order) which characterise the site. The predicted assemblage can be compared with the fauna observed at the same site. The comparison makes it possible to evaluate the extent of disturbance, expressed by index B. The model allows to evaluate spring, summer, and autumn seasonal data of the majority of wadable streams in the Czech Republic. The practical application of the PERLA system has started in 2001.     

Prairie plant guilds: a multivariate analysis of prairie species based on ecological and morphological traits

An ecomorphological analysis of the tallgrass prairie of central North America divided representative species of the native grassland flora into eight guilds or groups of species with similar life-form, phenology, and ecology. The guilds, segregated by multivariate analysis, are: (1) warm-season graminoids with Kranz anatomy and the Hatch-Slack photosynthetic pathway (C4 grasses); (2) cool-season graminoids without Kranz anatomy, but with the common Calvin or C3 photosynthetic pathway (C3 grasses and sedges); (3) annuals and biennial forbs; (4) ephemeral spring forbs; (5) spring forbs; (6) summer/fall forbs; (7) legumes; and (8) woody shrubs. The study was based on 158 plant species indigenous to three upland prairie sites in northeastern Kansas. Each species was scored for 32 traits which fall into five broad categories: plant habit, leaf characteristics, stem structures, root structures, and reproductive traits, including phenology. A multivariate, detrended correspondence analysis sorted the 158 species into the eight principal groups or guilds. These groups were further supported by a cluster analysis and discriminant function analysis of the same data set. The discriminant function analysis determined that 94.3% of the species were correctly classified in their respective guilds, and that the guilds were statistically different. Results indicate that guild analysis offers a basis for detailed classification of grassland vegetation that is more ecologically focused than species composition, as the myriad of species (about 1,000 prairie species on the central plains of North America) vary in presence, cover, and importance with their individualistic distribution.Abbreviations C3= C3 photosynthesis - C4= C4 photosynthesis - LSD= least significant difference