Expression of Cell Cycle Genes in Shoot Apical Meristems

This article reviews cell proliferation in the shoot apical meristem. The morphology and function of the meristem depends on the positional control of cell growth and division. The review describes the historical framework of research in this area and then discusses the regulatory pathways that might link developmental controls to the core cell cycle machinery.     

Changes in the Pattern of Proteins Synthesized in the Shoot Apical Meristem of Sinapis alba during Floral Transition

Because Sinapis alba can be induced to flower by a single longday (LD), we have sought for changes in gene expression in theshoot meristem during the floral transition induced by a 22h LD. To analyse the pattern of proteins synthesized in themeristem, we have used in vivo labelling of proteins, an improvedextraction procedure specifically designed for green plant tissues,two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (2D-PAGE)and a strict gel comparison procedure giving a confidence levelof 3%. Following the LD, complex qualitative and quantitative changesaffected about 8% of the proteins. Twelve different patternsof changes were observed. Some quantitative changes and onequalitative change were already found 16 h after the divergenceof light regimes, other changes appeared only later. Exceptfor one protein, the qualitative changes appeared only afterthe production of flower primordia. (Received March 21, 1992; Accepted September 23, 1992)     

Shoot Apical Meristems of Picea sitchensis Seedlings Accelerate in Growth Following Bud-set

First-year seedlings of Picea sitchensis were induced to setbuds by transferring them from long days (17 h) to short days(10 h at 20 °C, 12 h night at 12 °C). After 20 shortdays, the seedlings stopped growing in height, the shoot apicaldomes began enlarging and the transverse growth rates of theshoot apical dome tissues increased. For about 25 days thereafterprimordia were produced faster within the developing buds thanat the apices of seedlings which had been kept in long daysto prevent bud-set. Accelerated primordia production after bud-setenables the largest possible buds to be formed during the frost-freeperiod before winter. Picea sitchensis, apical meristem, bud-set     

Changes in the Pattern of Cell Division in the Shoot and Root Meristems of Lolium perenne during the Transition from Vegetative to Floral Growth

For Lolium perenne cv. Cropper, a system which resulted in 100%flowering comprised 90 short days (SD) at 4 ?C (vernalization)and 30 SD at 18 ?C followed by 8 long days (LD). The mitoticindex and G1 and G2 percentages were measured in the shoot androot apices of plants following 2, 5 or 8 LD and in SD controlssampled at the beginning and end of induction. Identical measurementswere made in plants given 48 SD at 18 ?C followed by 2, 5 or8 LD; plants remained vegetative in response to this treatmentlacking vernalization. Significant increases in both mitoticindex and meristem size occurred in the shoot apex in LD followingthe vernalizing, but not the non-vernalizing, treatment. A clusterof mitoses in the apical dome of the shoot apex was unique tothe vernalized plants given 5 or 8 LD. However, an increasein root meristem size occurred regardless of vernalization,but a significant increase in the mitotic index was limitedto vernalized plants given 5 or 8 LD. Whilst the vernalization-LDtreatment resulted in an increase in the G2 percentage in theshoot apex following 2, 5 or 8 LD, no such alteration was observedin the root meristem. Thus, the changes to the cell cycle whichcorrelated with flowering were increased mitotic indices andG2 percentages in the shoot apex at each sampling time and increasedmitotic indices in the root apex following 5 and 8 LD. Key words: Cell division, flowering, Lolium perenne L.     

Clonal Analysis Provides Evidence for Transient Initial Cells in Shoot Apical Meristems of Seed Plants

Abstract Drift of mutated sectors in sectorial or mericlinal plant chimeras has been interpreted as indirect evidence of initial impermanence at the apex. However, the same effect may result from mutation in noninitial cells positioned close to the vertex of the apical dome. Clonal analysis of the cell packets present in the superficial layer of spruce and magnolia apices provided the library of patterns suggesting that the position and the number of initial cells, and in some cases also the meristem axis inclination, may change over time. Multicellular clones originating from a single cell have been found in the geometric center of some apices, whereas in other apices the cellular center (where three or four clonal borders meet) did not correspond to the geometric center of the apex. Such effects may result only from initial impermanence.     

Controlled Cytokinin Production in Transgenic Tobacco Using a Copper-Inducible Promoter

The cytokinin group of plant hormones regulates aspects of plant growth and development, including the release of lateral buds from apical dominance and the delay of senescence. In this work the native promoter of a cytokinin synthase gene (ipt) was removed and replaced with a Cu-controllable promoter. Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L. cv tabacum) transformed with this Cu-inducible ipt gene (Cu-ipt) was morphologically identical to controls under noninductive conditions in almost all lines produced. However, three lines grew in an altered state, which is indicative of cytokinin overproduction and was confirmed by a full cytokinin analysis of one of these lines. The in vitro treatment of morphologically normal Cu-ipt transformants with Cu²⁺ resulted in delayed leaf senescence and an increase in cytokinin concentration in the one line analyzed. In vivo, inductive conditions resulted in a significant release of lateral buds from apical dominance. The morphological changes seen during these experiments may reflect the spatial aspect of control exerted by this gene expression system, namely expression from the root tissue only. These results confirmed that endogenous cytokinin concentrations in tobacco transformants can be temporally and spatially controlled by the induction of ipt gene expression through the Cu-controllable gene-expression system.     

茎顶端分生组织在植物发育过程中的保持、转变和逆转

顶端分生组织(shoot apical meristems,SAM)为产生新的器官和组织而不断提供新的细胞,它的活性依赖于平衡分生组织细胞的增殖和器官发生之间关系的调控基因.来自不具备光合能力的顶端分生组织的细胞可形成具有光合能力的营养器官.在从营养生长到生殖发育的转变过程中,茎顶端分生组织,转变为花序分生组织,最终形成花分生组织.在进入开花决定状态以前,SAM的状态很大程度上受到环境信号和转录调控因子的影响.以模式植物拟南芥为主,对在顶端分生组织的保持和转变中复杂同时又有差异的基因调控网络进行讨论.在花和花序分生组织逆转过程中,SAM中的细胞也受到相关基因的调控,且表达方式存在明显的时空差异.因此,具有决定性的和未决定性双重特性的分生组织之间的转变和相互协调,对于器官发生和形态建成起到至关重要的作用.     

Non-autotrophic CO2 Fixation during Shoot Formation in Tobacco Callus

Non-autotrophic carbon fixation has been studied during growthof tobacco callus cultured in dark under shoot-forming (SF)and non-shoot-forming (NSF) conditions. The enzymes involvedin malate metabolism—phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase,malic dehydrogenase, glutamic-oxalacetic transaminase, and malicenzyme—increased sharply during the first 4 d of cultureparticularly in SF tissue. The activities of the enzymes studiedwere considerably greater in SF than in NSF tissue. There wasa dramatic increase in malate content in SF tissue during thefirst 4 d of culture. Subsequently malate was rapidly depletedduring the time of organogenesis. In NSF tissue there was acontinuous build-up of malate content throughout the cultureperiod. We suggest that malate derived from dark fixation ofCO₂ plays differing roles in NSF (callus) and SF tissues. Inthe former, malate acts primarily as an osmotic solute regulating,at least in part, cell expansion between successive cell divisions.In shoot-forming tissue, on the other hand, malate preferentiallyprovides NADPH for reductive biosynthesis.     

Elevation in the Sucrose Content of the Shoot Apical Meristem of Sinapis alba at Floral Evocation

Nanogram tissue samples from apical meristems of Sinapis alba were assayed for sucrose, total soluble hexosyl equivalents ( glucose and fructose plus hexoses from sucrose hydrolysis), and total soluble glucosyl equivalents ( glucose plus glucose from sucrose hydrolysis). On dry weight basis, sucrose concentration increased by more than 50% within 10 hours after the start of either a long photoperiod or a short photoperiod displaced by 10 hours in the 24-hour cycle (`displaced short day'). (These treatments induce flower initiation) Glucose and fructose concentrations were close to zero in vegetative meristems and remained low compared to sucrose in meristems of induced plants. Within a single meristem, the peripheral and the central zones had similar concentrations of sucrose. Our results indicate that an early physiological event in floral transition is the accumulation of sucrose in the meristem.     

Dynamics of Endogenous Cytokinins during the Growth Cycle of a Hormone-Autotrophic Genetic Tumor Line of Tobacco

The profile of endogenous cytokinins in a genetic tumor line of tobacco, namely, Nicotiana glauca (Grah.) × Nicotiana langsdorffii (Weinm.), following 1 to 10 weeks of growth on solid medium was determined by radioimmunoassay. ³H-labeled cytokinins of high specific activity were added during tissue extraction to correct for the purification losses. Following subculture (of 4-week-old tissues when their cytokinin content is high) onto fresh medium the total cytokinin content continued to be high during the first week (1470 picomoles per gram fresh weight) when the tissue fresh weight remained essentially unchanged (lag phase). The cytokinin levels then declined by about half in 2- and 3-week-old tissues (626 and 675 picomoles per gram fresh weight, respectively), a period when rapid increase in tissue fresh weight was recorded. Increments of 840% and 2780% over initial fresh weight were obtained in 2- and 3-week-old cultures, respectively. The cytokinin content then increased to initial high levels in 4-week-old tissues (1384 picomoles per gram fresh weight) after which it gradually declined with tissue age. The lowest cytokinin levels (432 picomoles per gram fresh weight) were observed in 10-week-old tissues. Maximal tissue fresh weight (4030% increase over initial fresh weight) was recorded in 5-week-old cultures after which it decreased slowly to 77.5% of the highest tissue fresh weight in 10-week-old cultures. Zeatin appeared to be the dominant endogenous cytokinin in tissues of all ages. Other cytokinins quantified were dihydrozeatin, zeatin riboside, and dihydrozeatin riboside; the values may include contributions from aglucones derived from the hydrolysis of corresponding O-glucosides, since the entire basic fraction was treated with β-glucosidase before analysis. In addition the levels of isopentenyladenine, isopentenyladenosine, and the nucleotides of zeatin riboside, dihydrozeatin riboside, and isopentenyladenosine were also determined.     

Formation, Maintenance and Function of the Shoot Apical Meristem in Rice

In higher plants, the process of embryogenesis establishes the plant body plan (body axes). On the basis of positional information specified by the body axes, the shoot apical meristem (SAM) and root apical meristem (RAM) differentiate at fixed positions early in embryogenesis. After germination, SAM and RAM are responsible for the development of the above-ground and below-ground parts, respectively, of the plant. Because of the importance of SAM function in plant development, the mechanisms of SAM formation during embryogenesis and of SAM maintenance and function in post-embryonic development are priority questions in plant developmental biology. Recent advances in molecular and genetic analysis of morphogenetic mutations in Arabidopsis have revealed several components required for SAM formation, maintenance and function. Although these processes are fundamental to the life cycle of every plant, conservation of the components does not explain the diversity of plant morphologies. Rice is used as a model plant of the grass family and of monocots because of the progress in research infrastructure, especially the collection of unique mutations and genome information. In comparison with the dicot Arabidopsis, rice has many unique organs or processes of development. This review summarizes what is known of the processes of SAM formation, maintenance and function in rice.     

Cytophotometric Study of the 2C Nuclear DNA Content in the Apical Bud of Sinapis alba during Floral Transition

Feulgen cytophotometry was used to detect possible changes inthe 2C DNA content in the various parts of the apical bud ofSinapis alba during floral evocation and flower development.This study showed that there was no significant difference inthe 2C DNA content between the vegetative, evoked or reproductivemeristems. In vegetative plants, the 2C DNA content was lowerin the leaf primordia than in the meristem. This content inthe leaf exhibited a further decrease during the floral transition.In the flower primordia, the 2C value never exceeded the typicalvalue of the meristem. In the flower at anthesis, the DNA contentwas lower in the pistil and stamen than in the meristem. Apical bud, floral transition, 2C DNA content, cytophotometry, Sinapis alba L.     

Nematode Population and Community Dynamics in Soybean-Wheat Cropping and Tillage Regimes

The nematode community structures of various soybean-wheat regimes and of a single-cropped, conventionally tilled soybean regime were studied at two sites in Tennessee. Each of the 100 nematode species identified in the study was placed in one of five trophic groups, the most diverse being plant parasites (31 species), followed by Dorylaimida (26 species), bacterivores (23 species), fungivores (15 species), and predators (5 species). No significant differences in overall diversity and dominance among treatments and trophic groups were found. Densities of Heterodera glycines Ichinohe infective juveniles were significantly higher in single-cropped, conventionally tilled soybeans in July. When data were subjected to ordination analysis, it was shown that plant-parasitic nematode communities produced an aggregation of conventionally tilled, single-cropped soybean plots when compared to all double-cropped treatments. Ordination of overall nematode communities yielded similar results.     

Development, Characterization, and Application of a Cadmium-Selective Microelectrode for the Measurement of Cadmium Fluxes in Roots of Thlaspi Species and Wheat

A Cd²⁺-selective vibrating microelectrode was constructed using a neutral carrier-based Cd ionophore to investigate ion-transport processes along the roots of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and two species of Thlaspi, one a Zn/Cd hyperaccumulator and the other a related nonaccumulator. In simple Cd(NO₃)₂ solutions, the electrode exhibited a Nernstian response in solutions with Cd²⁺ activities as low as 50 nm. Addition of Ca²⁺ to the calibration solutions did not influence the slope of the calibration curve but reduced the detection limit to a solution activity of 1 μm Cd²⁺. Addition of high concentrations of K⁺ and Mg²⁺ to the calibration solution to mimic the ionic composition of the cytoplasm affected neither the slope nor the sensitivity of the electrode, demonstrating the pH-insensitive electrode's potential for intracellular investigations. The electrode was assayed for selectivity and was shown to be at least 1000 times more selective for Cd²⁺ than for any of those potentially interfering ions tested. Flux measurements along the roots of the two Thlaspi species showed no differences in the pattern or the magnitude of Cd²⁺ uptake within the time frame considered. The Cd²⁺-selective microelectrode will permit detailed investigations of heavy-metal ion transport in plant roots, especially in the area of phytoremediation.     

Dynamics of Concomitant Field Populations of Hoplolaimus columbus and Meloidogyne incognita

From the fall of 1968 through the summer of 1973, a Georgia cotton field with a lengthy history of the Cotton Stunt Disease Complex was sampled for the presence of plant parasitic nematodes. Although Meloidogyne incognita was recovered on all sampling dates, concomitant populations of Hoplolaimus columbus were not recovered until the spring of 1970. During the succeeding four growing seasons, the population density and horizontal distribution of H. columbus increased, and H. columbus replaced M. incognita as the predominant phytopathogenie species. A second Georgia cotton field containing concomitant populations of H. columbus and M. incognita was observed from the fall of 1971 through the summer of 1973. In this case the horizontal distribution of both species remained relatively constant and the population density of H. columbus increased steadily. In both locations, the presence of either H. columbus or M. incognita significantly inhibited the presence of the concomitant species. In general, however, the initial spring or final fall population densities of H. columbus or M. incognita had no significant influence on the population density of the concomitant species, The data are also discussed in relation to the biological significance of H. columbus in the southeastern coastal plain.