The potential use of identification of skeletal remains for the early detection of Ammotragus: an exotic ungulate species in Southern Spain

The main aim of our work was to evaluate osteometry as a complementary tool for the early detection of Ammotragus lervia, an exotic ungulate, which currently shows an expanding trend in southeastern Spain. For this purpose, 142 metacarpi and 123 metatarsi from seven Iberian ungulate species were determined by means of a classification function. In a general way, this function works, but regarding related species (those very similar from a morphometrical view), correct determination was reached in only 44.4–90% of the cases. However, in these cases, we can use auxiliary criteria like sexually dimorphic traits, and reach 100% correct identification of bones.     

Ammotragus free-ranging population in the south-east of Spain: a necessary first account

This is the first attempt to investigate some characteristics of a Spanish population of Ammotragus lervia introduced in the wild back in 1970. Apart from a short account of the population history and proceeding up to the present, a comparison between population data reported for the American wild populations and the Spanish one is provided. The surveys were conducted during breeding and rutting seasons. The majority of the herds sighted in Sierra Espuña were made up of 1–10 individuals, and adult males were more frequently observed during rutting. The group composition more commonly observed during breeding is that of adult females and subadults, i.e., nursery herds. A different habitat use was obtained depending on the season and sex-age class. These results are consistent with the dynamics of ungulates and their reproductive phenology. Suggestions for future research and conservation-management concerns in the area are provided.     

Abundance, distribution and conservation of Chinese White Dolphins (Sousa chinensis) in Xiamen, China

In recent years, human activities appear to present the greatest threat to the Chinese white dolphin (Sousa chinensis). Increasing death records of this species in Xiamen have already become a focus of attention among the local government, the public, and the media. A comprehensive understanding about the status of Xiamen population is important not only to evaluate the conservation measures taken previously, but to design adaptive measures appropriate to this population. In this study, a survey using line-transect methodology was carried out to cover an area of about 700 km² in Xiamen waters. A total of 102 separate sightings were made on 6157 km of transect line. The abundance estimate ranged from 67 (CV=41.6%) to 93 (CV=26.34%), with an average of 86 (CV=20.16%). Overall, Xigang (West harbor) and Jiyu represented the major area of distribution in Xiamen. Significant seasonal changes in distribution were found. In spring, significant numbers of dolphins occurred in Xigang and few in other areas, while in other seasons, the sighting rate in Xigang decreased relatively with sightings in Jiyu, Dapan, and Dadeng increasing obviously, suggesting an outward movement pattern of Chinese white dolphins from the inside harbor to outside waters after spring. Some suggestions for redesigning the Xiamen Nature Reserve and other management measures are put forward.     

Reproductive isolation of two sympatric subspecies ofJuniperus phoenicea (Cupressaceae) in southern Spain

The phenology, reproductive cycle and cone crop of two sympatric subspecies ofJuniperus phoenicea (Cupressaceae) were studied during three consecutive years in southern Spain. The flowering pattern of each subspecies was constant during this period: inJ. phoenicea subsp.turbinata flowering was always in October–November, whileJ. phoenicea subsp.phoenicea flowered in February–March. There was no overlap between the flowering periods of the two taxa. The reproductive cycle of the two subspecies was similar, though there were some important differences because of their flowering times. Male cone development in both subspecies occurred in autumn, but the male cones ofJ. phoenicea subsp.phoenicea did not shed pollen until the end of February. InJ. phoenicea subsp.turbinata, the gap between pollination and fertilisation was seven months while inJ. phoenicea subsp.phoenicea it was only three months, fertilisation taking place at the same time in the two taxa. Post-fertilisation events were similar in the two subspecies, leading to a cycle of two years inJ. phoenicea subsp.turbinata and a shorter one of about 20 months inJ. phoenicea subsp.phoenicea. Alternating good and slight seed cone crops were found in both taxa during the three years studied, the good crops of one subspecies coinciding with the slight crops of the other one. Although the proximity of the two subspecies and method of pollination could make hybridisation between the taxa possible, the different flowering seasons prevent hybridisation isolating them reproductively.     

Taxonomic and ecological notes on Hexarthra bulgarica from high mountain lakes and ponds in the Sierra Nevada (Spain)

Hexarthra bulgarica was found in 16 of the 37 high mountain lakes (over 2500 m) studied in the Sierra Nevada (Southern Spain). These populations resemble closely the subspecies H. b. canadensis. Data on the morphology and ecology of the Sierra Nevada populations are given, and these are compared to published information on the three other subspecies of H. bulgarica.Research supported by CAICYT Project No. 3069/83.     

Characterization of the estrous cycle and reproductive traits of the aoudad (Ammotragus lervia) in captivity

In this study the estrous cycle of the aoudad has been analyzed and characterized for the first time, using non-invasive methods for tracking reproductive cyclicity. The duration of the estrous cycle is 23 days (range 16-32 days), with a luteal phase of 17 days (range 12-27 days) and an interluteal phase of 6 days (range 3-14 days). The estrous cycle did not differ between females, but it was affected by the time of the year. Intraindividual variation of the cycle was observed in one out of the nine individuals. The average hormone concentration values, the estrogen:progestogen ratio, as well as their minimum and maximum values for each interluteal and luteal phases of the estrous cycle, are shown. Interindividual differences found in these values were basically associated with age. Females tended to start their cycle when in the presence of an adult male. Anestrus was observed in study females except for the oldest (14 years old). Age and anestrus onset were correlated, with younger females starting earlier than the older ones. This study reveals that Ammotragus reproductive biology is more similar to that of Capra than Ovis, except for some endocrinological features.     

Cricotopus (Cricotopus) nevadensis sp. n. (Diptera,Chironomidae) from Sierra Nevada (southern Spain)

Male and female imagines, and pupal exuviae of Cricotopus (C.) nevadensis sp. n. are described. A discussion on the systematic position, a differential diagnosis and notes on the ecology of this new species are given.     

Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato in ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) from two different foci in Spain

The prevalence of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato in several tick species was studied over a 2 year period in two ecologically different areas in Spain. One area was an endemic area for Lyme disease, with a number of autochthonous human cases and supported large populations of Ixodes ricinus on cattle and birds; the second area was characterized by the absence of I. ricinus together with the presence of foxes and their associated tick species. While I. ricinus was the main vector of B. burgdoreri in the endemic area (with a mean prevalence of 14% in adults and 51% in nymphs), adults of both Ixodes canisuga and Ixodes hexagonus had high rates of B. burgdorferi prevalence (30 and 28%, respectively) in the zone where I. ricinus was absent. Immatures of Ixodes frontalis were found to be carriers of the spirochete only in those zones where I. ricinus is present, suggesting evidence for reservoir competence in a tick-bird cycle.     

Genetic diversity of Dinaric brown bears (Ursus arctos) in Croatia with implications for bear conservation in Europe

Brown bears have lost most of their range on the European continent. The remaining western populations are small, isolated and highly endangered. The Dinaric-Pindos brown bear population is the western-most stable population and the fourth largest in Europe. It has been recognized as a potential source for recolonization of populations whose survival is at risk. Indeed, several translocations of Dinaric bears to Italy, Austria and France have recently been made. Despite the importance of the Dinaric bear population, its genetic status remains poorly understood. Using tissue samples from 156 hunted or accidentally killed Dinaric bears in Croatia, this study analysed genetic diversity at 12 microsatellite loci, as well as population structure and past reductions in size. In addition, a subset of 59 samples was used to assess diversity of the mitochondrial DNA control region. The results indicate that Dinaric bears have high nuclear genetic diversity, as compared to other extant brown bear populations, despite genetic evidence of a bottleneck caused by past persecutions. However, haplotype diversity was low, probably as a result of male-biased dispersal and female philopatry. Not surprisingly, no evidence of population sub-structure was found using nuclear markers, as the bear habitat has remained continuous and the highway network has been built only recently. Management should focus on maintaining habitat connectivity and keeping the effective population size as large as possible. In addition, when removing individuals, care should be taken not to further deplete the population of rare haplotypes. A coordinated transboundary management of the entire Dinaric-Pindos brown bear population should be a priority for its long-term conservation.     

Indigenous Natural Enemies Associated with Phyllocnistis citrella (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae) in Eastern Spain

The incidence of generalist indigenous natural enemies of the citrus leafminer (CLM), Phyllocnistis citrella Stainton (Lepidoptera; Gracillariidae), was monitored during three growing seasons at two different orchards located in the major citrus-growing area of Spain. Composition of the parasitoid complex changed during the study period. However, the eulophids Cirrospilus near lyncus Walker and Pnigalio pectinicornis L. were consistently the predominant species. Despite the varying composition of the parasitoid complex, oviposition, host feeding, and predatory preferences of the natural enemies of the CLM clearly centered on third instar larvae. Incidence of beneficial fauna increased as the season progressed, reaching maximal values up to 70% of susceptible leafminers (mature larvae) at the end of the summer. Parasitism was significantly related to relative host density. However, predation showed no relationship to host availability but did so to flushing in one of the orchards. Incidence of indigenous natural enemies of the CLM should not be ignored when planning any introduction of exotic parasitoids, and their conservation should be taken into account when planning any citrus IPM strategy.     

Biological control of an exotic scale, Orthezia insignis Browne (Homoptera: Ortheziidae), saves the endemic gumwood tree, Commidendrum robustum (Roxb.) DC. (Asteraceae) on the island of St. Helena

St. Helena is a small South Atlantic island with a highly degraded, but internationally significant, terrestrial flora. The 2500 remaining gumwoods, Commidendrum robustum, are an important part of this remnant flora. In 1991, a South American scale insect, Orthezia insignis, was identified attacking the gumwood trees. By 1993, severe infestations had killed over 100 trees. If the number of dead trees had continued to increase exponentially, all 2500 trees would have died by 1995. This outcome was likely given abundant alternative host plants, and lack of natural enemies of O. insignis. Host range tests showed that the other members of the endemic genus Commidendrum were also at risk. The coccinellid predator, Hyperaspis pantherina, was released on St. Helena in 1993. H. pantherina numbers increased from 1994, coinciding with a 30× decrease in scale numbers. Scale outbreaks have not been reported on St Helena since 1995, and culturing of H. pantherina was discontinued because insufficient O. insignis prey could be found in the field. Extensive blackening from sooty molds on the surviving trees in 1995 suggested that the predator was effective just in time to prevent death of most trees. H. pantherina appears to have saved the field population of a rare endemic plant from extinction.     

Distribution of Castanea pollen in Galician honeys (NW Spain)

With the aim to know the importance of theCastanea pollen in the Galician honey(N. W. Spain), the interannual oscillations withinthe areas of production and the most activephenological period for bees, we have madethe melissopalynological analysis of: 599samples of honey collected during the period1990–1999 in Galicia, the production of 40beehives during three consecutive years(1990, 1991, 1992), the partial production during1990 of two beehives situated at distant pointsin our geography.     

Aeropalynology ofFraxinus (Ash) in an urban area of southwestern Spain

Summary The first observations from Huelva (southwestern Iberian Peninsula) on the phenology of Ash, based on an aeropalynological study over three years, are presented. Sampling was carried out with a Cour trap. The beginning of pollination is related to the moment of the lowest average temperature of the year, usually in January. Flowering occurs earlier if there are exceptionally low average temperatures (<10°C) in November. The amount of rainfall in autumn and winter affects the intensity of pollination.     

Rue (Ruta L., Rutaceae) in traditional Spain: Frequency and distribution of its medicinal and symbolic applications

Rue was one of the main medicinals in the European folk tradition, and it was also considered an important means of protection against supernatural evil in many parts of the world. All of the primary ethnobotanical sources from Spain were reviewed for information about the uses and importance of this plant. The data were analyzed for both content and geographical distribution. The most frequent applications relate to medicinal, veterinary, or protective virtues. The results show a high correspondence of the main medicinal uses to the pharmaceutically demonstrated properties of the plant: emenagogue and abortifacient; digestive; improve circulation; treat rheumatism; treat infections and inflammation; to relieve pain, and remove parasites among others. Most of the uses cited for Spain occur in several areas of the country, showing a high degree of homogeneity of the ethnobotanical knowledge of these species in Spain. The main recipes and applications are discussed.     

Daily variations ofAlternaria spores in the city of Murcia (semi-arid southeastern Spain)

Annual variations in the abundance ofAlternaria spores were related to the length of the spore period for data from Murcia (southeastern Spain). To understand the relationship between the number of spores and climatic factors,Alternaria spore counts for March 1993 to February 1994 were examined by means of correlation and regression analyses with fourteen different weather parameters. The results indicated that there was a tendency forAlternaria spore concentrations to increase with increases in temperature, wind speed and hours of sunshine. Negative correlations were observed with air pressure, wind direction and humidity. Theoretical curves forAlternaria spore counts are given in relation to temperatures during the period studied.     

The karyotypes of Dugesia species from Spain (Turbellaria,Tricladida)

Some species of Planarians, new to Spain, are recorded. Dugesia polychroa, D. sicula, D. iberica and D. gonocephala s. 1. have been investigated karyologically. The former possesses a diploid complement characteristic of the biotype A (2n = 8); the second is diploid with 2n = 18; diploidy and triploidy were found in sexual populations of D. iberica with n = 8. Triploidy occurred in all the asexual strains of the D. gonocephala group with a basic number of either 8 or 9. In this latter case B-chromosomes were occasionally found.     

Survey of natural enemies of spider mites (Acari: Tetranychidae) in citrus orchards in eastern Spain

Field surveys were conducted from 2004 to 2007 to determine the species composition and relative abundance of natural enemies associated with colonies of either the citrus red mite, Panonychus citri, or the two spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae, in Valencian citrus orchards (eastern Spain). Fourteen species were recorded, six phytoseiid mites and eight insect predators. Two of them are reported for the first time on citrus in Spain and two more are first reports as predators associated with T. urticae. The community of predators associated with T. urticae and P. citri was almost identical, and the Morisita–Horn index of similarity between both natural enemy complexes was close to one, suggesting that predators forage on both pest species. Quantifying the presence of many known spider mites predators in Valencian citrus orchards is an important first step towards spider mite control. A challenge for future studies will be to establish conservation and/or augmentation management strategies for these predators, especially to improve T. urticae biological control.     

Floristic and ecological diversity of Ranunculus aquatic habitats in the sub-Atlantic range: implications for conservation

Ranunculus communities have been identified by the European Community Directive on Conservation of Natural and Semi-Natural Habitats as a key habitat in need of protection. The ecological requirements and floristic composition of three Ranunculus communities were investigated in North-Eastern France. We also aimed to determine the relationships between environmental parameters, Ranunculus abundance and species richness. R. fluitans communities clearly differed from the other communities by a higher evenness and species richness and by the occurrence of specific species. In contrast, R. penicillatus and R. peltatus communities displayed similar floristic content. Three different sub-associations were however identified within these communities. If alkalinity was determinant in isolating R. fluitans communities from the other stretches, the ecological ranges of the three communities strongly overlapped while considering parameters linked with other resources or with physical constraints. Further, no significant correlations were highlighted between environmental parameters, Ranunculus abundance and species richness. With respect to conservation, these observations may indicate the particular difficulty in defining each Ranunculus habitat on a European scale, and identify several key points which need to be taken into account when evaluating their status.     

Distribution of Boros schneideri (Panzer, 1796) (Coleoptera, Boridae) in Lithuania

The distribution of the endangered species Boros schneideri was studied by checking the presence of larvae and adults under the bark of dead Pinus sylvestris trees in 13 pine forests in Lithuania. B. schneideri was found in 10 biggest pine forests, the area of which exceeded 20,000 ha. However, it was not detected in smaller isolated forests. In Kazlų Rūda, Šimonys, Pabradė and Rūdiškės forests this species was recorded for the first time. The part of localities in which B. schneideri was found and the percentage of trees with B. schneideri were significantly higher in the main parts of the biggest forests than in satellite or smaller forests. Both these parameters were significantly lower in forests located in the close vicinity of urban territories than in forests further from them. Consequently, the forest size and the distance of the forest from urban territories were found to be of critical importance for the survival and density of the B. schneideri population. These distribution regularities are important for the establishment of protected areas for this species conservation.