落叶松人工林单木模型的研究

根据吉林省松江河林业局所实测的落叶松人工林(Larix olgensis)临时标准地66块、固定标准地18块以及8块团状枝解析样地资料,通过对林分中优势木生长及树冠结构与动态的分析,提出适于树木生长的Korf方程并用来构造林木的潜在生长函数。选择林分密度指数(SDI)作为反映林分中林木之间平均拥挤指标。在单木竞争指标的选择上,通过引进树冠因子,并在与传统的竞争指标相比较的基础上,淡化距离因子的作用,应用优势木相对树冠表面积构造了与距离无关的单木竞争指标,以此建立了落叶松人工林单木生长模型。     

An investigation into the application of the Wagner parsimony method in synecology

Synecological analyses are usually based on typological, phenetic and cladistic methods. The disadvantages of these techniques are shown. The application of the Wagner parsimony method to synecology is considered. All the methods need some prerequisites, viz. definitions of localities and characters (the most simple one being the presence/absence of taxa); the choice of taxonomic level of taxa; their autochthony. The application of Wagner parsimony needs a new terminology. The congruence of any environmental condition, including freshwater monitoring indices, can be tested on parsimonious trees. The Wagner parsimony method not only provides various indices (tree length, CI, HI, RC, RI) which allow the comparison of trees but also minimal trees which are direct tools in synecology.     

Pollination success in a population of dioecious rain forest trees

Pollination success in female trees was determined for a population of Neolitsea dealbata (R. Br.) Merr., a locally abundant dioecious tree pollinated by small, unspecialized insects in northern Queensland rain forest, Australia. The population consisted of a clustered group of trees with a mean male-to-female distance of 4.5 m and more isolated individuals, including females more than 90 m away from the nearest pollen source. A map of all reproductive trees was produced to determine accurate male-to-female distances. The size of the pollen source available to females was defined as a function of the distance to the nearest ten male trees and their sizes (male neighbourhood index). The rate of pollen movement to females was measured by counting pollen tubes (and the number of tubes per style) in female trees 6 days after the commencement of population flowering. The pollination rate decreased steeply to less than half when the nearest male was only 6.5 m away. Although pollen reached a female 330 m away from the nearest pollen source, only 10% of receptive flowers had been pollinated. The short flowering period (2–3 weeks) combined with the the slow rate of pollen movement means that a large proportion of flowers in isolated trees are unpollinated, confirming an earlier finding that isolated females set fewer fruits than gregarious females. The reliability of pollen transfer to females was determined by quantifying insects and their pollen loads trapped at female trees with a range of male neighbourhood indices. Quantities of insects and pollen were significantly correlated with the size of the male neighbourhood index, indicating a strong density-dependent response by vectors to flowering. Pollen was also collected from insect visitors to non-flowering trees. Females with large male neighbourhood indices received more pollen than non-flowering trees with equivalent male neighbourhood indices. However, when the male neighbourhood indices were small for both female and non-flowering trees, the changces of pollinators encountering female and non-flowering trees were similar, suggesting random movements of pollinators in sparse-flowering sub-populations. The dioecious breeding system, brief, synchronous flowering period, clustered population structure and random, opportunistic foraging behaviour of vectors interacted in a way that reduced reproduction in relatively isolated trees. These results demonstrate a mechanism for differential breeding success between trees in natural populations and emphasize the possible impact of logging regimes on pollen flow between trees. Large interconspecific distances in species-rich environments may have been a factor in the selection for synchronous flowering between trees in outcrossing tree species with generalist insect pollinators.     

古榕树健康诊断初探

通过对鼓浪屿古榕树的普查,选择其健康诊断的生长指标和生理指标,包括当年生枝叶、果实生长状况、叶绿素荧光等,对不同生长势的古榕树进行分析,旨在探讨基于生长指标与生理指标相结合的古榕树的健康诊断方法,为古榕树的养护与复壮提供依据。结果表明,生长指标与生理指标能较一致地指示古榕树的健康状况。因此,可通过生长指标与生理指标相结合的方法诊断古榕树的健康状况。     

青藏高原东缘红桦-岷江冷杉次生林中大径级保留木对其他林木的影响

为了研究森林采伐后保留木在次生群落恢复过程中对其他林木的影响, 采用Hegyi单木竞争指数(CI)和标记相关点格局k_d(r)函数对4 hm ²红桦-岷江冷杉(Betula albosinensis-Abies faxoniana)次生林样地中大径级保留木与其他林木的空间关系进行了分析。结果表明: 1)优势树种红桦(Betula albosinensis)与岷江冷杉(Abies faxoniana)的种间、种内竞争中, 种间Hegyi单木竞争指数(CI) (2.484) >红桦种内CI (1.711) >岷江冷杉种内CI (1.548); 2)大径级保留木与其他径级林木间的竞争指数中, 红桦大径级保留木与红桦小树的竞争指数最大, 红桦大径级保留木与岷江冷杉小树、岷江冷杉大径级保留木与红桦小树和岷江冷杉小树这三组的竞争指数之间无显著差异, 且三者的值最小; 3)在14.5-15.5 m尺度上, 红桦大径级保留木与岷江冷杉幼树呈显著的空间正关联; 在6.5-7.5 m的尺度上, 岷江冷杉大径级保留木与岷江冷杉幼树呈显著的空间负关联; 0-100 m尺度上, 岷江冷杉幼苗(树龄≥4年)与两种大径级保留木均呈相互独立的空间关系。     

The important role of scattered trees on the herbaceous diversity of a grazed Mediterranean dehesa

Scattered trees are considered keystone structures and play an important role in Mediterranean sylvopastoral systems. Such systems are associated with high biodiversity and provide important natural resources and ecosystem services. In this study, we measured the contribution of scattered trees and different grazing management (cattle, sheep and wildlife only) to the diversity of the grassland sward in a dehesa (open holm oak woodland) located in Central Spain. We analyzed alpha and beta diversity through measurement of species richness, Shannon-Wiener, and Whittaker indices, respectively; and the floristic composition of the herb layer using subplots within two adjacent plots (trees present vs. trees absent) under three different grazing management regimes, including wildlife only, during a year. We found a 20–30% increment in the alpha diversity of wooded plots, compared to those without trees, regardless of grazing management. All beta indices calculated showed more than 60% species turnover. Wooded plots were occupied by different herbaceous species in different heterogeneous microsites (under the canopy, in the ecotone or on open land) created by the trees. Livestock grazing modified species composition (e.g. more nitrophilous species) compared to wildlife only plots. In addition to all their other benefits, trees are important to maintaining grassland diversity in Mediterranean dehesas.     

Individual sensitivity of Larix sibirica L. in open woodland of the Shira forest-steppe

Some indices of individual variability in annual growth of Siberian larch in open woodlands of Khakassia are compared. In the Shira forest-steppe the Siberian larch exhibits high sensitivity of annual growth and diverse responses to changes in vegetative conditions. Stabilizing selection maintains dominance of trees with moderately sensitive annual growth. Such trees are the most vital. It has been shown that the adaptive norm of population’s response and the individual variability of annual growth positively correlate with the total annual precipitation. The sensitivity index of annual growth is a better indicator of the genetic structure of the population than the coefficient of variability of annual growth indices.     

Using multi-target clustering trees as a tool to predict biological water quality indices based on benthic macroinvertebrates and environmental parameters in the Chaguana watershed (Ecuador)

Macroinvertebrates were sampled in the Chaguana river basin in SW Ecuador in the wet season (March) and the dry season (September) of 2005 and 2006. To assess the robustness of several biological indicators, correlations were calculated between both years and between the wet and the dry season. In addition, it was tested if the indices gave significantly different results for sites with a bad, poor, moderate and good ecological water quality. Composition measures performed poorly in most cases, however, abundance, diversity and richness measures often performed better and tolerance measures, the so-called biotic indices, performed very well, even indices developed for temperate regions. By using pruned multitarget clustering trees, it was possible to predict several well-performing ecological water quality indices simultaneously on the basis of the occurring key macroinvertebrate taxa or, alternatively, on the basis of key environmental variables. In contrast to unpruned trees, which resulted in complex trees that were difficult to interpret and performed inferiorly, pruning resulted in transparent trees. Water quality indices scored high when Hydropsychidae were present and even higher when in addition also Megapodagrionidae were present. When no Hydropsychidae nor Libellulidae were present, the indices reached the lowest scores. However, this model based on key taxa occurrences did not perform well during validation. Water quality indices scored higher with increasing dissolved oxygen concentrations and a strong current velocity. The latter model based on environmental variables also performed well during validation. In the presented study, the ecological water quality could thus be accurately predicted solely on the basis of dissolved oxygen concentration and current velocity. It can therefore be concluded that multitarget clustering trees can be easily used as a practical tool for cost-effective decision support by water quality managers.     

HOMOPLASY AND THE CHOICE AMONG CLADOGRAMS

Abstract Cladistic data are more decisive when the possible trees differ more in tree length. When all the possible dichotomous trees have the same length, no one tree is better supported than the others, and the data are completely undecisive . From a rule for recursively generating undecisive matrices for different numbers of taxa, formulas to calculate consistency, rescaled consistency and retention indices in undecisive matrices are derived. The least decisive matrices are not the matrices with the lowest possible consistency, rescaled consistency or retention indices (on the most parsimonious trees); those statistics do not directly vary with decisiveness. Decisiveness can be measured with a newly proposed statistic, DD = − S )/( − S ) (where S = length of the most parsimonious cladogram, = mean length of all the possible cladograms for the data set and M = observed variation). For any data set, can be calculated exactly with simple formulas; it depends on the types of characters present, and not on their congruence. Despite some recent assertions to the contrary, the consistency index is an appropriate measure of homoplasy (= deviation from hierarchy). The retention index seems more appropriate for comparing the fit of different trees for the same data set.     

Comparing tree diversity and composition in coffee farms and sacred forests in the Western Ghats of India

Expansion of coffee cultivation is one of the causes of deforestation and biodiversity loss. However, shade grown coffee has been promoted as a means for preserving biodiversity in the tropics. In this study we compared tree diversity in two types of coffee management regimes with the sacred groves in the Western Ghats of India. We computed species accumulation curves, species diversity indices and evenness indices to compare the different management regimes. Results of diversity indices showed that shade coffee had less diversity compared to sacred groves. Exotic species dominated the tree diversity in lands where the tree harvesting rights are with the growers. Native trees dominated the tree diversity when growers had no ownership rights on trees. A species accumulation curve suggested that the sacred grove had higher species richness compared to other two habitats. Lack of incentive to preserve endemic species as shade trees is forcing growers to plant more exotic species in shade grown coffee plots. If encouraged, shade grown coffee can preserve some biodiversity, but cannot provide all ecological benefits of a natural forest.     

北京市居住区林木健康评价

为了揭示北京市居住区林木健康变化特征及影响因素,提供北京市居住区林木健康经营对策。对北京市85个居住区林木进行健康特征调查,在建立林木健康评价模型评价林木健康状况的基础上,采用方差分析法和多重比较法分析不同类型居住区林木健康差异。结果表明:不同类型居住区林木健康指标差异显著(P0.05),各指标变化规律不完全一致;不同类型居住区地表覆盖情况、光污染程度、树干倾斜度、栽植截干、树势、冠形、干形等方面普遍较差。北京市居住区林木健康指数在0.60—0.80之间,健康等级呈现右偏正态分布特点,健康林木比例为3. 65%,亚健康林木(56. 07%)最多,其次是中等健康林木(36.68%),不健康林木有3.50%,濒死林木仅占0.10%。居住区林木健康指数在不同区域和不同来源间差异不显著(P0.05),在不同时期间差异显著(P0.05),健康指数大小分别为:三—四环=四—五环五—六环二环内=二—三环;福利房商品房保障房;2009—2013年2003—2008年=1998—2002年=1991—1997年1956—1990年。北京市居住区林木生长处于亚健康状态,潜在影响因子如地表覆盖情况、光污染程度、树干倾斜度等指标是限制北京市居住区林木生长的重要因子。适当减小夜间照明影响、增加有机地表覆盖、避免过度的修枝截干和加强林木养护管理是当前北京市居住区林木健康生长的保障。     

Detection of Laurel Wilt Disease in Avocado Using Low Altitude Aerial Imaging

Laurel wilt is a lethal disease of plants in the Lauraceae plant family, including avocado (Persea americana). This devastating disease has spread rapidly along the southeastern seaboard of the United States and has begun to affect commercial avocado production in Florida. The main objective of this study was to evaluate the potential to discriminate laurel wilt-affected avocado trees using aerial images taken with a modified camera during helicopter surveys at low-altitude in the commercial avocado production area. The ability to distinguish laurel wilt-affected trees from other factors that produce similar external symptoms was also studied. R_modGB digital values of healthy trees and laurel wilt-affected trees, as well as fruit stress and vines covering trees were used to calculate several vegetation indices (VIs), band ratios, and VI combinations. These indices were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) and an M-statistic was performed in order to quantify the separability of those classes. Significant differences in spectral values among laurel wilt affected and healthy trees were observed in all vegetation indices calculated, although the best results were achieved with Excess Red (ExR), (Red–Green) and Combination 1 (COMB1) in all locations. B/G showed a very good potential for separate the other factors with symptoms similar to laurel wilt-affected trees, such as fruit stress and vines covering trees, from laurel wilt-affected trees. These consistent results prove the usefulness of using a modified camera (R_modGB) to discriminate laurel wilt-affected avocado trees from healthy trees, as well as from other factors that cause the same symptoms and suggest performing the classification in further research. According to our results, ExR and B/G should be utilized to develop an algorithm or decision rules to classify aerial images, since they showed the highest capacity to discriminate laurel wilt-affected trees. This methodology may allow the rapid detection of laurel wilt-affected trees using low altitude aerial images and be a valuable tool in mitigating this important threat to Florida avocado production.     

基于树冠重叠面积的天然混交林林木竞争指数

构建基于树冠重叠面积和林木混交关系的竞争指数,探究天然混交林林分及主要树种竞争的表达方法,并以甘肃省小陇山林区锐齿槲栎天然混交林为研究对象,采用胸径、树高、冠幅、距离等信息的2期调查数据,对新构建的基于树冠重叠面积的天然混交林林木竞争(CIM)指数进行验证,并选取Spearman系数,对CIM竞争指数和传统竞争指数进行相关性分析。结果表明,采用树冠投影重叠和考虑树高关系确定竞争木的方法能有效避免竞争木多选或漏选; CIM1、CIM2、CIM3能够表达出混交林竞争压力变化,表现出竞争压力越大林木蓄积生长量越小的趋势,将树种混交因子引入竞争指数能够提高蓄积生长量与竞争指数的相关性,更加客观的描述林分中竞争状况。竞争指数与蓄积生长量相关性由大到小排序为CIM2>CIM3>CIM1>Bella竞争指数(CIO)>简单竞争指数(CI)>CIO2>CIO1,表明竞争指数 CIM2对混交林竞争表达更具参考意义。林分中主要树种锐齿槲栎由于相邻木中同树种相邻木增加,导致竞争压力增大。天然混交林中树种组成复杂多样,林木分布不均匀,在竞争指数中引入树种混交因子能够较为真实的反映林木竞争状况。     

炼山飞播造林后华山松林主要种群资源利用研究

巫溪县红池坝地区于1972年采用炼山造林的生态恢复措施对退化森林植被进行了恢复与重建,现已形成了多种类型的华山松(Pinusarmandii)针阔混交林群落.采用Petraitis生态位普遍重叠和特定重叠指数,研究了巫溪县红池坝地区华山松群落中10个主要乔木种群的资源利用状况.结果表明,华山松与大多数乡土树种都具有较大的生态位宽度,种间普遍重叠值为0.728,表明种群能够充分、有效地占有和利用生境资源.华山松对乡土树种的种间特定重叠值很小,而乡土树种对华山松的特定重叠值大,华山松对资源利用和竞争能力不及乡土树种,在竞争中处于劣势.乡土阔叶树种间特定重叠值普遍很小,在资源利用上生态位分化有明显优势,因此,乡土树种的生态位特征应作为植被生态恢复与重建实施过程中的有益参照.另外,本文还对Petraitis的重叠测度指数的可用性和优缺点进行了初步探讨.     

基于引力模型的林木竞争分析

引力模型是否可以应用于森林群落林木竞争关系分析是值得研究的问题。基于引力模型建立林木相对活力圈能反映竞争木活力大小,基于竞争木的相对活力圈建立引力竞争指数能准确反映林木生长与林木竞争的关系。以浙江省天目山国家级自然保护区针阔混交林为研究对象,将V_Hegyi竞争指数、引力竞争指数分别与胸径进行相关分析,胸高断面积生长量分别与2种竞争指数进行相关分析,胸径生长率与2期引力竞争指数的比值(2021年与2006年的引力竞争指数之比)进行相关分析,此外,对相对活力圈直径与胸径进行相关分析,并比较分析了活立木与枯死木的竞争指数大小。结果表明: 2种竞争指数与胸径均呈显著负相关,且均服从幂函数关系。林木胸高断面积生长量与2种竞争指数均呈显著负相关,但引力竞争指数比V_Hegyi竞争指数更能反映林木生长与林木竞争的关系。相对于V_Hegyi竞争指数的比值,2期引力竞争指数的比值更能说明林木生长与林木竞争的关系。在针阔混交林中,阔叶树种的生长与竞争的相关性>针叶树种生长与竞争的相关性。林木枯损受竞争的显著影响。林木相对活力圈大小与林木胸径大小呈显著负相关。引力模型是反映空间相互作用的重要模型之一,可以应用于林木竞争关系的研究,且基于引力模型建立的引力竞争指数可以作为评价林木竞争和林木活力的一个空间结构指标,比V_Hegyi竞争指数更能反映林木生长与林木竞争的关系。     

Death of vigorous trees benefits bark beetles

Bark beetles (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) are commonly associated with live host trees that are stressed, a relationship that has been attributed to lower host defenses or greater nutritional quality of these trees. However, most bark beetle species commonly inhabit freshly dead trees where induced host defenses are absent. In this study, we investigate the role of tree vigor at the time of death for pine engraver bark beetles, Ips pini (Say), breeding in freshly dead jack pine, Pinus banksiana Lamb. As indices of tree vigor, we considered tree size, phloem thickness, and several measures of recent growth rate (last year's growth increment, mean annual increment and basal area increment in the past 5 and 10 years, and periodic growth ratio). We examined the relationship between these indices in three stands, aged 60, 77, and 126 years, and found that phloem thickness, previously shown to have a strong positive effect on bark beetle reproduction, was only weakly associated with tree growth rate and inconsistently related to tree size among the three stands. To examine the effects of tree vigor on pine engraver reproduction, we felled 20 trees of various sizes from the 77-year-old stand, and experimentally established breeding males and females in 25-cm-long sections. Offspring were collected and characteristics of breeding galleries were measured. Using stepwise regression, we consistently found that indices associated with tree growth rate best explained beetle reproductive performance, as they were positively related to parental male and female establishment on logs, female reproductive success, length of egg galleries, proportion of eggs resulting in emerged offspring, and negatively related to the length of the post-egg gallery. Surprisingly, phloem thickness had no unique effect on pine engraver reproduction, except for a weak negative effect on the establishment success of parental females. The strong effect of tree vigor observed in this study suggests that substantial mortality of vigorous trees, such as caused by windthrow, can contribute to significant increases in bark beetle populations that could trigger outbreaks in living trees. Received: 3 February 1999 / Accepted: 27 April 1999     

Arthropod faunal similarity of Bornean rain forest trees

ABSTRACT. 1. Arthropod samples, collected by insecticide fogging ten Bornean lowland rain forest trees, were sorted to species and used to study some of the determinants of faunal similarity of these trees.
2. Similarity indices were calculated between pairs of trees for guilds of beetles, beetle families and for different orders and other families of insects.
3. Multiple regression analyses of five independent variables of the trees (taxonomic similarity, distance apart, vertical canopy overlap, similarity in tree height, epiphytic load) were carried out against these similarity indices.
4. In eight of the eighteen insect groups analysed, taxonomic similarity of the trees is the most important variable affecting their species composition, accounting for a maximum of 29.4% of the variation.
5. For the Homoptera, Gryllidae, Anthicidae, Chrysomeloidea and scavengers, distance between the trees and the similarity of the trees'epiphyte load have a greater effect on their faunal similarities than taxonomic similarity of the trees.
6. The maximum variation accounted for by variables with significant T ratios was 38.6% in the Anthicidae. In four groups, the Formicidae, Heteroptera, Galerucinae and Corylophidae, none of the variables was significant.
7. These data may support the view that for many insect groups there is less host-specificity in the tropics than in temperate regions.     

邻体竞争对植物个体生长速率和死亡概率的影响：基于日本落叶松种群试验的研究

选择 4种有代表性的植物邻体竞争指数 ,分析了竞争对日本落叶松 (L arix leptolepis)试验种群的个体生长速率和死亡概率的影响 ,发现在本试验条件下 ,引入竞争指数不能明显改善对生长速率的预测效果 ,但用竞争指数可以较好地预测个体于 1个月内在竞争压力下死亡的概率 ,从而为构造植物生长模型时处理个体死亡问题提供一个有益的定量化思路     

Phylogenetic Constraints Do Not Explain the Rarity of Nitrogen-Fixing Trees in Late-Successional Temperate Forests

Background

Symbiotic nitrogen (N)-fixing trees are rare in late-successional temperate forests, even though these forests are often N limited. Two hypotheses could explain this paradox. The ‘phylogenetic constraints hypothesis’ states that no late-successional tree taxa in temperate forests belong to clades that are predisposed to N fixation. Conversely, the ‘selective constraints hypothesis’ states that such taxa are present, but N-fixing symbioses would lower their fitness. Here we test the phylogenetic constraints hypothesis.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Using U.S. forest inventory data, we derived successional indices related to shade tolerance and stand age for N-fixing trees, non-fixing trees in the ‘potentially N-fixing clade’ (smallest angiosperm clade that includes all N fixers), and non-fixing trees outside this clade. We then used phylogenetically independent contrasts (PICs) to test for associations between these successional indices and N fixation. Four results stand out from our analysis of U.S. trees. First, N fixers are less shade-tolerant than non-fixers both inside and outside of the potentially N-fixing clade. Second, N fixers tend to occur in younger stands in a given geographical region than non-fixers both inside and outside of the potentially N-fixing clade. Third, the potentially N-fixing clade contains numerous late-successional non-fixers. Fourth, although the N fixation trait is evolutionarily conserved, the successional traits are relatively labile.

Conclusions/Significance

These results suggest that selective constraints, not phylogenetic constraints, explain the rarity of late-successional N-fixing trees in temperate forests. Because N-fixing trees could overcome N limitation to net primary production if they were abundant, this study helps to understand the maintenance of N limitation in temperate forests, and therefore the capacity of this biome to sequester carbon.