Viking and Medieval Settlement in the Faroes: People,Place and Environment

Apart from the possible, but unproven presence of some Irish hermits, the Norse colonizers of the Faroe Islands arrived in an unsettled landscape around A.D. 800. The archipelago was essentially unwooded and rich in bird and marine life. The area of land suitable for settlement and farming was relatively meagre and concentrated in coastal areas; inland areas were suitable for shielings (summer pasture) and subsequently more extensive grazing (outfield) activities. Reconstruction of the settlement distribution has not been a well-developed aspect of Faroese historical study. Using archaeological and documentary evidence, we are able to present the first comprehensive distribution map of Norse settlement, which emphasizes an overwhelmingly coastal focus of considerable density. Using historical (including place-names), archaeological, and environmental evidence, we examine the nature and organization of the Viking (early Norse) and medieval (later Norse) settlement. Colonization and economic activity in the islands were strongly influenced by topographic and ecological factors. This, along with social organization, was subject to influences which may have derived, at least in part, from experiences in a Norwegian homeland.     

Abandonment of farmland and vegetation succession following the Eurasian plague pandemic of ad 1347–52

Aim This paper reviews the available documentary, archaeological and palaeoecological evidence for the abandonment of agricultural land and consequent regeneration of the forest in Europe after the Black Death. Location Western and northern Europe. Methods This review is the result of an exhaustive search of the historical, archaeological and palaeoecological literature for evidence indicating agricultural decline and forest regeneration in Eurasia during the 14th century. The available evidence for landscape change can be divided into two categories: (1) documentary and archaeological sources, and (2) palaeoecological reconstructions of past vegetation. In the past few years, several pollen diagrams from north‐west Europe have been reported with precise chronologies (decadal and even annual scale) showing the abandonment of farmland and consequent ecological change in the late medieval period. Results and main conclusions There is strong evidence of agricultural continuity at several sites in Western Europe at the time of the Black Death. The effects of the Black Death on the European rural landscape varied geographically, with major factors probably including the impact of the plague on the local population, and soil quality. At two sites in western and northern Ireland, the late medieval decline in cereal agriculture was probably a direct result of population reduction following the Black Death. In contrast, the decline in cereal production began at sites in Britain and France before the Black Death pandemic of ad 1347–52, and was probably due to the crisis in the agricultural economy, exacerbated by political instability and climate deterioration. Much of the abandoned arable land was probably exploited for grazing during the period between the decline in cereal farming and the Black Death. In the aftermath of the Black Death, grazing pressure was greatly reduced owing to reductions in the grazing animal population and a shortage of farmers. Vegetation succession on the abandoned grazing land resulted in increased cover of woody tree species, particularly Betula and Corylus, by the late 14th century. The cover of woodland was greatest at c.ad 1400, before forest clearance and agriculture increased in intensity.     

Place-name evidence for the former distribution and status of Wolves and Beavers in Britain

Place-name evidence includes over 200 places in England named after Wolves, but only 20 named for Beavers. A few places named for other wild mammals are noted, but coverage of these is less thorough, and is less certain because of either linguistic confusion or confusion with domestic mammals. In England, Wolf place-names are most frequent in upland counties, but are not related to the counties which had most woodland at the time of the Domesday survey (as a nearest available date), despite the frequent allusions in the place-names themselves to woodland. Most Beaver placenames are compounded with some reference to water, but are not associated with the fenland areas where archaeological remains of Beavers are most frequent. It appears that Wolves were still numerous and widespread when the Anglo-Saxons (mostly) were naming our countryside, but Beavers were already scarce.     

纳帕海环湖公路交通噪声对鸟类的影响

为研究纳帕海环湖公路交通噪声对冬季鸟类的影响域和对敏感物种黑颈鹤(Grus nigricollus)行为的影响,于2009年和2010年冬季沿环湖公路以自驾车匀速行驶调查(40 km/h)与徒步定点观测两种形式对路域鸟类的回避距离及黑颈鹤的行为反应进行了研究.结果显示:(1)纳帕海环湖公路路域一共记录到鸟类36种,其中...     

Genotyping of ancient Mycobacterium tuberculosis strains reveals historic genetic diversity

The evolutionary history of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) has previously been studied by analysis of sequence diversity in extant strains, but not addressed by direct examination of strain genotypes in archaeological remains. Here, we use ancient DNA sequencing to type 11 single nucleotide polymorphisms and two large sequence polymorphisms in the MTBC strains present in 10 archaeological samples from skeletons from Britain and Europe dating to the second–nineteenth centuries AD. The results enable us to assign the strains to groupings and lineages recognized in the extant MTBC. We show that at least during the eighteenth–nineteenth centuries AD, strains of M. tuberculosis belonging to different genetic groups were present in Britain at the same time, possibly even at a single location, and we present evidence for a mixed infection in at least one individual. Our study shows that ancient DNA typing applied to multiple samples can provide sufficiently detailed information to contribute to both archaeological and evolutionary knowledge of the history of tuberculosis.     

崇明东滩越冬白头鹤觅食地特征的初步研究

对崇明东滩越冬白头鹤 (Grusmonacha)觅食地的特征进行了研究。结果表明 :①在潮沟边缘和平滩 2种微地貌之间 ,白头鹤的取食强度具极显著差异 (P <0 0 1) ,食物埋藏深度和食物重量具显著差异 (P <0 0 5 )。②在由北向南 3条样线之间 ,白头鹤的取食强度、食物埋藏深度、食物数量和食物重量差异极显著 (P<0 0 0 1)。③在内带、中带和外带 3条植被带之间 ,食物的埋藏深度和食物重量差异极显著 (P <0 0 0 1) ;由于潮水的影响 ,白头鹤在 3条植被带之间的取食强度无显著差异。白头鹤通过食物埋藏深度、食物重量和食物数量 3个特征来选择最佳的觅食场所。其中 ,食物的埋藏深度对白头鹤觅食地的选择具有最重要的作用 ,白头鹤倾向取食埋藏浅的食物 ;而潮水的冲刷作用是造成食物埋藏深度不同的主要原因。通过食物的平均埋藏深度与白头鹤平均取食深度的比较 ,可以较准确地预测白头鹤的取食地点     

Militarised natural history: tales of the avocet's return to postwar Britain

Absent as a breeding bird from Britain for at least a century, avocets (Recurvirostra avosetta) began nesting on the east coast of Britain, in Suffolk, shortly after the end of the Second World War, having honed in on two spots on Britain's coast that had been flooded for war-related reasons. The avocets' presence was surrounded in secrecy, while a dedicated few kept up a protective watch over them. As the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) took over responsibility for the flourishing colony, they claimed the episode as a symbol of success for British protection, later making the bird their logo. Counter to the RSPB's story of protecting a British bird, I read the narratives of events in terms of making a bird British. I show how, as postwar Britain slumped economically and spiritually and tried to rebuild itself, the birds became a vehicle for formulating national identity: of Britain as a home to which to return and belong. Exploring the themes of returning servicemen and closed territories, the paper also examines the episode in terms of the naturalisation of the military and the militarisation of nature.     

Do local abundances of British birds change with proximity to range edge?

Aim Species generally vary in the density they attain at different sites, prompting the question of whether this variation is systematic across their range. We investigate this question using data on the abundance and distribution of thirty-two species of passerine birds across Britain derived from censuses organized by the British Trust for Ornithology. Methods Analysis is complicated by the issue of quantifying the distance of any particular census location from the edge of the range of a species when the study area encompasses only part of its entire distribution. No measure of this quantity is a priori the correct one, and so we use a variety of different measures which make differing assumptions about how abundances might be structured across species ranges. Results None of the measures used reveal any consistent relationships between the density attained by species at census sites and the spatial positions of those sites. Only thirteen species show significant relationships with any of the measures, and no more than seven species with any single measure. Main conclusion In summary, there is no convincing evidence that passerine bird densities are usually lower towards range edges in Britain. We discuss possible reasons for these findings.     

New evidence for pre-Columbian Muscovy Duck Cairina moschata from Ecuador

The archaeological record of the large lowland neotropical Muscovy Duck Cairina moschata , one of the few native animals known to have been domesticated by pre-Columbian peoples, is poorly known. Only a few specimens have been recovered in different cultural, temporal and depositional contexts from throughout the neotropics, and differentiating between wild and domesticated forms on the basis of osteological evidence has proved to be difficult. Archaeological specimens are mainly recorded from sites in western Panama and South America, including the western lowlands of Ecuador where two new locations are described and evaluated. It is suggested that at least some of these Ecuadorian specimens belong to domesticated forms, and that the cultural contexts in which they are found at archaeological sites suggest that prehispanic trade may have influenced their geographical distribution prior to the arrival of Europeans.     

Experimental evidence that deer browsing reduces habitat suitability for breeding Common Nightingales Luscinia megarhynchos

The ecological impacts of increasing populations of deer (Cervidae) in Europe and North America are becoming more widespread and pronounced. Within Britain, it has been suggested that declines in several woodland bird species, particularly those dependent on dense understorey vegetation, may be at least partly due to these effects. Here we present experimental evidence of the effects of deer browsing on the fine‐scale habitat selection and habitat use by a bird species in Europe. The study was conducted in a wood in eastern England where a decrease in Common Nightingale Luscinia megarhynchos numbers has coincided with a large increase in deer numbers. Eight woodland plots were cut to produce young coppice regrowth (a favoured habitat for Nightingales). Deer were excluded from half of each plot using steel fences, thus creating eight experimental pairs of exclosures (unbrowsed) and controls (browsed). Radiotelemetry and territory mapping of male Nightingales showed strong selection of exclosures. The density of territories was 15 times greater in the exclosures than in grazed controls. Selection for exclosures was significant for the minimum convex polygon, 95% kernel and 50% core home‐ranges used by seven radiotracked males. Tracked birds spent 69% of their time in the 6% of the study area protected from deer. Intensified browsing by deer influenced local settlement patterns of Nightingales, supporting the conclusion that increased deer populations are likely to have contributed to declines of Nightingales in Britain, and potentially those of other bird species dependent on dense understorey.     

7种鹤形目鸟类性别的分子鉴定

生境破碎化和非法狩猎已经使很多鸟类陷入了濒危境地,笼养繁殖进行迁地保护及再引入的保护措施已经具有举足轻重的作用,鸟类性别鉴定对于有效的繁殖至关重要。然而对珍稀濒危鸟类进行安全、方便和准确的性别鉴定一直是个难题。本文运用CHD基因的一对引物2550F/2718R,对7种鹤形目鸟类:大鸨(Otis tarda)、丹顶鹤(Grus japonensis)、蓑羽鹤(Anthropoides virgo)、灰鹤(G.grus)、白鹤(G.leucogeranus)、白头鹤(G.monacha)和灰冠鹤(Balearica regulorum)共48只鸟,进行了有效的性别鉴定。研究结果不但对7种鹤形目鸟类的笼养繁殖和个体交换起到了指导作用,而且为今后的再引入提供了有利条件。本研究的性别分子鉴定方法适用于7种鹤形目鸟类,具有安全、方便、准确等特点,并且可以推广使用。     

Weaning at Anglo‐Saxon raunds: Implications for changing breastfeeding practice in britain over two millennia

This study investigated stable‐isotope ratio evidence of weaning for the late Anglo‐Saxon population of Raunds Furnells, Northamptonshire, UK. δ¹⁵N and δ¹³C values in rib collagen were obtained for individuals of different ages to assess the weaning age of infants within the population. A peak in δ¹⁵N values at about 2‐year‐old, followed by a decline in δ¹⁵N values until age three, indicates a change in diet at that age. This change in nitrogen isotope ratios corresponds with the mortality profile from the site, as well as with archaeological and documentary evidence on attitudes towards juveniles in the Anglo‐Saxon period. The pattern of δ¹³C values was less clear. Comparison of the predicted age of weaning to published data from sites dating from the Iron Age to the 19th century in Britain reveals a pattern of changing weaning practices over time, with increasingly earlier commencement and shorter periods of complementary feeding in more recent periods. Such a change has implications for the interpretation of socioeconomic changes during this period of British history, since earlier weaning is associated with decreased birth spacing, and could thus have contributed to population growth. Am J Phys Anthropol 151:604–612, 2013. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

First archaeogenetic results verify the mid‐Holocene occurrence of Dalmatian pelican Pelecanus crispus far out of present range

The paper presents an evaluation of subfossil bird bones from archaeological and geological sites in Europe that shows that birds of the genus Pelecanus occurred far out of their present range between 7.4 and 5.0 ka BP in the Danish archipelago. Additionally, from other northwestern European regions mid‐Holocene records of pelicans are known. However, due to morphological similarities there are difficulties in species identification. In this paper ancient DNA barcoding techniques were used to clarify the species assignment of one of these records for the first time. Our results show that the bone derives from Dalmatian pelican Pelecanus crispus, a species that today breeds in 15 colonies in the eastern Mediterranean. This species identification is especially remarkable since the Dalmatian pelican is known to be less migratory. We demonstrate that the appearance and disappearance of pelicans in northwestern Europe coincide with climate parameters, since all records fall within warm periods. This applies for the larger group of Danish records during the Holocene thermal maximum in northern Europe as well as for two more groups of records from central Europe and Britain dating to 1.9 and 0.8 ka ago. Recent ecological research on the Dalmatian pelican shows that the species seems to profit from the modern climate changes and is starting to expand its range. Our paper documents that under special circumstances short‐distance migrant birds are also able to expand their ranges to areas far outside of the former distribution areas. Finally, the Dalmatian pelican is presented as an indicator species reflecting special climate conditions. The present study demonstrates not only the possibility to recover avian DNA from at least 7 ka old bones, but the relevance of such genetic analysis in combination with archaeological data, particularly if bones could not be assigned to species level by morphological features. In such cases, aDNA is shown as a valuable tool for the reconstruction of the avifauna of the past.     

Holocene changes in the ecology of northern fur seals: insights from stable isotopes and archaeofauna

The remains of northern fur seals (Callorhinus ursinus) are among the most abundant of pinniped elements recovered from mainland coastal archaeological sites in both California and Oregon. This is surprising as all contemporary northern fur seals breed exclusively on offshore islands, primarily at high latitudes, and the species is otherwise pelagic. The vulnerability of these animals to human predation suggests that either humans were foraging much further offshore than has been presumed or alternatively that the ecology of these animals has shifted during the late Holocene. We used isotopic and archaeofaunal analysis of the remains of pinnipeds from the middle to late Holocene of central and northern California to clarify the breeding and foraging behavior, and migration patterns of these ancient animals. The carbon and nitrogen isotope compositions of ancient northern fur seals reveal that these animals fed as far offshore as they do today, and that they remained at middle latitudes throughout the year. From an archaeological site at Moss Landing, California, we identified 16 skeletal elements from at least 12 very small northern fur seal pups. From another site near Mendocino, California, we identified the remains of at least 6 pups. We estimate the size and age of 5 of the young animals using sex-specific regressions of body length on the short dentary length derived from measurements of modern specimens. Our estimates indicate these ancient pups were substantially smaller, and therefore younger, than modern 3-month-old northern fur seal pups from similar latitudes and their nitrogen isotope compositions suggest they had not been weaned. As present-day northern fur seals do not leave their rookeries until they are at least 4 months old, we consider it highly unlikely that these ancient pups swam to these mainland locations from some distant island rookery. While there are numerous nearshore rocky outcrops along the Mendocino Coast, which may have supported small breeding colonies, the Moss Landing site is centered on a 40-km-long sandy beach, and is more than 120 km from what at the time were the nearest offshore islands. We conclude that northern fur seal adult females, subadults, and pups whose remains were recovered at the Moss Landing archaeological site must have been taken at a mainland rookery. Evidence that northern fur seals once bred on the mainland at this central California location suggests that the abundant remains of these animals at numerous other archaeological sites along the California coast also reflect the presence of nearby mainland rookeries. Based on the relative abundance of their remains in ancient human occupation sites and the widespread distribution of sites where their remains have been found, it appears that northern fur seals were once the predominant pinniped throughout a region where they now only rarely occur. Furthermore, their presence along the central and northern California coasts appears to have once severely limited the distribution of other pinnipeds, which are now common to the region.     

Is supplementary feeding in gardens a driver of evolutionary change in a migratory bird species?

Human activities are causing rapid environmental change at a global scale. Urbanization is responsible for some of the most extreme human‐altered habitats and is a known driver of evolutionary change, but evidence and understanding of these processes is limited. Here, we investigate the potential underlying mechanisms contributing to the contemporary evolution of migration behaviour in the Eurasian blackcap (Sylvia atricapilla). Blackcaps from central Europe have been wintering in urban areas of Britain with increasing frequency over the past 60 years, rather than migrating south to the Mediterranean. It has been hypothesized that the popularization of providing supplementary foods for wild birds within Britain may have influenced this marked migratory change, but quantifying the selective forces shaping evolutionary changes remains challenging. Using a long‐term national scale data set, we examine both the spatial distribution and interannual variation in blackcap wintering behaviour in Britain in relation to supplementary food availability and local climate. Over a 12‐year period, we show that blackcaps are becoming increasingly associated with the provision of supplementary foods in British gardens, and that the reliability of bird food supplies is influencing their winter distribution at a national scale. In addition, local climatic temperatures and broader scale weather variation are also important determinants of blackcap wintering patterns once they arrive in Britain. Based on our findings, we conclude that a synergistic effect of increased availability of feeding resources, in the form of garden bird food, coupled with climatic amelioration, has enabled a successful new wintering population to become established in Britain. As global biodiversity is threatened by human‐induced environmental change, this study presents new and timely evidence of the role human activities can play in shaping evolutionary trajectories.     

The Avifauna from Prehistoric Arikara Sites in South Dakota

Abstract

During an approximate 15-year period from about 1950 to 1965, numerous anthropologists representing at least a dozen institutions were periodically involved in archaeological salvage of Plains sites in the Middle Missouri Valley. In many instances the cultural aspects of subsistence and the utilization of native fauna in general were not of primary interest. However, some animal bone was salvaged and this discussion involves the study of the avian remains from 51 prehistoric Arikara sites along the Missouri River in South Dakota. Approximately 3,100 bird elements, representing 22 families and about 68 species, were identified. Although mammals, especially the bison, elk, deer, and pronghorn, provided the greatest quantity of meat in the diet of these people, birds were also of special significance as supplemental food (e.g. waterfowl, grouse) and because of the part they played in the cultural and ceremonial activities of the Plains Indian. The predominance of remains of such groups as eagles, hawks, harriers, owls, and ravens in these sites is indicative of their special cultural significance; in some instances, such as eagle trapping by the Hidatsa and Mandan, they can be correlated with ethnohistoric accounts dealing with the utilization of birds.     

The presence of the brown bear Ursus arctos in Holocene Britain: a review of the evidence

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Descriptions and palaeoecological implications of bird remains from the Middle Pleistocene of Florisbad,South Africa

The spring mound deposit Florisbad (Free State, South Africa) yielded several bird remains dating to the late Middle Pleistocene. These specimens derive from spring vent structures and are the product of natural taphonomic processes relating to the spring as primary sampling agent. The bird fossils can be assigned to Ostrich, Struthio camelus; Greater Flamingo, Phoenicopterus ruber roseus; Wattled Crane, Bugeranus carunculatus; an anatine dabbling duck; and a francolin with strong resemblance to Shelley’s Francolin, Scleroptila shelleyi. As in the case of the large mammal record, the bird remains from the Florisbad spring reflect two components in the palaeoenvironment. Evidence for Greater Flamingo, Wattled Crane, and a dabbling duck strongly supports previous hypotheses regarding the presence of a palaeolake system, while records for Ostrich and a francolin, but also Wattled Crane accord with the presence of open landscapes, such as grasslands.     

The Demoiselle Crane,Antropoides virgo,in Turkey: distribution and population of a highly endangered species

Abstract

The Demoiselle Crane is one of the rarest bird species of Turkey. 20–30 pairs breed at a few sites in Eastern Anatolia. In contrast to the major part of its ranges, it is confined to wetlands. Compared to Cyprus, the number of migrants is relatively low, which might be explained by a low observation activity during migration seasons.     

Finger Millet processing in East Africa

Although archaeobotanical sampling and recovery programmes are a relatively recent implementation in East African archaeology, results from sites where they have been carried out follow a similar trend. This is one of abundant recovery of wood charcoal, but very little in the way of other macroscopic plant remains. Restricted archaeological evidence and ethnographic interviews show the importance of grains, in particular finger millet (Eleusine coracana), for the Bunyoro people of Uganda in pre-colonial times. It has been suggested that one of the possible reasons why finger millet is not being recovered in quantity from archaeological contexts is because the processing of this crop does not involve heating and hence there is not the chance of being deposited in charred form in the archaeological record. Recent ethnographic work on finger millet processing in Uganda shows that it is exposed to heat and potential charring during cleaning and preparation of the grain for either storage or cooking, and this regime is discussed in terms of its activities and products. These findings reinforce the need for archaeobotanists and archaeologists working in this region to look for other possible causes of the scarcity of macroscopic plant remains, and also the importance of considering integrated evidence for agricultural activity on prehistoric sites.