Group dynamics of the Nubian ibex (Capra ibex nubiana) in the Tuwayiq Canyons, Saudi Arabia

Group dynamics of the Nubian ibex ( Capra ibex nubiana ), a sub-species adapted to arid environments, were studied at the Ibex Reserve, Saudi Arabia. Most of the animals (83%) were seen in mixed herds during the rut and post-rut. Mean group size of all sex-age categories was 7.2, with the majority of the ibex seen in groups of < 10. The sex ratio of adult animals was equal but that of juveniles, older than six months, was skewed towards females. Habitat structure, sparse vegetation cover and a small population size are factors that favour small group size. An equal adult sex ratio and a high number of juveniles indicate that the population has a high reproductive potential.     

Nitrogen metabolism and kidney function in the Nubian ibex (Capra ibex nubiana)

The nitrogen economy of the Nubian ibex (Capra ibex nubiana), a ruminant that inhabits harsh deserts, was studied in the laboratory when fed three diets of different quality. Even on the low quality roughage (wheat straw) the ibex was found capable of balancing its nitrogen economy. On feeds low in protein, recycling of urea played a major role in helping the ibex maintaining a balanced nitrogen metabolism. When on wheat straw, the ibex recycled 71.6% of the urea synthesized in its liver. When on feeds lower in protein, blood urea concentration dropped (from 11.4 mM when on alfalfa hay to 3.2 mM when on wheat straw). GFR that amounted to 44.28 ml/min when on alfalfa hay decreased to 28.97 ml/min when on wheat straw. Reabsorption of urea amounted to 48% of the urea filtered when on alfalfa hay and increased to 78.8% on wheat straw.     

Epizootiologic investigations of selected abortive agents in free-ranging Alpine ibex (Capra ibex ibex) in Switzerland

In the early 2000s, several colonies of Alpine ibex (Capra ibex ibex) in Switzerland ceased growing or began to decrease. Reproductive problems due to infections with abortive agents might have negatively affected recruitment. We assessed the presence of selected agents of abortion in Alpine ibex by serologic, molecular, and culture techniques and evaluated whether infection with these agents might have affected population densities. Blood and fecal samples were collected from 651 ibex in 14 colonies throughout the Swiss Alps between 2006 and 2008. All samples were negative for Salmonella spp., Neospora caninum, and Bovine Herpesvirus-1. Antibodies to Coxiella burnetii, Leptospira spp., Chlamydophila abortus, Toxoplasma gondii, and Bovine Viral Diarrhea virus were detected in at least one ibex. Positive serologic results for Brucella spp. likely were false. Overall, 73 samples (11.2%) were antibody-positive for at least one abortive agent. Prevalence was highest for Leptospira spp. (7.9%, 95% CI=5.0-11.7). The low prevalences and the absence of significant differences between colonies with opposite population trends suggest these pathogens do not play a significant role in the population dynamics of Swiss ibex. Alpine ibex do not seem to be a reservoir for these abortive agents or an important source of infection for domestic livestock in Switzerland. Finally, although interactions on summer pastures occur frequently, spillover from infected livestock to free-ranging ibex apparently is uncommon.     

Evidence of three new members of malignant catarrhal fever virus group in muskox (Ovibos moschatus), Nubian ibex (Capra nubiana), and gemsbok (Oryx gazella)

Six members of the malignant catarrhal fever (MCF) virus group of ruminant rhadinoviruses have been identified to date. Four of these viruses are clearly associated with clinical disease: alcelaphine herpesvirus 1 (AlHV-1) carried by wildebeest (Connochaetes spp.); ovine herpesvirus 2 (OvHV-2), ubiquitous in domestic sheep; caprine herpesvirus 2 (CpHV-2), endemic in domestic goats; and the virus of unknown origin found causing classic MCF in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus; MCFV-WTD). Using serology and polymerase chain reaction with (degenerate primers targeting a portion of the herpesviral DNA polymerase gene, evidence of three previously unrecognized rhadinoviruses in the MCF virus group was found in muskox (Ovibos moschatus), Nubian ibex (Capra nubiana), and gemsbok (South African oryx, Oryx gazella), respectively. Base on sequence alignment, the viral sequence in the muskox is most closely related to MCFV-WTD (81.5% sequence identity) and that in the Nubian ibex is closest to CpHV-2 (89.3% identity). The viral sequence in the gemsbok is most closely related to AlHV-1 (85.1% identity). No evidence of disease association with these viruses has been found.     

Estimating Alpine ibex Capra ibex abundance from photographic sampling

Monitoring procedures for Alpine ibex Capra ibex are limited in habitats with reduced visibility and when physical capture and marking of the animals is not intended. Photographic sampling, involving using camera‐trap data and identifying ibex from natural markings, was adopted with capture‐recapture models to estimate the abundance of ibex in Austria. The software CAPTURE's model produced an average capture probability of 0.44 with an estimate of 34–51 ibex and a mean population size of 38 ibex. This first study showed the applicability of photographic capture‐recapture techniques to estimate the abundance of ibex based on their natural markings.     

Genetic diversity of Nubian ibex in comparison to other ibex and domesticated goat species

Capra nubiana is a wild ibex species that is in danger of extinction. This study aimed at assessing the genetic diversity and population structure of Nubian ibex (Capra nubiana, n?=?8) in comparison to Alpine ibex (Capra ibex, n?=?8), Bezoar ibex (Capra aegagrus, n?=?4), and domesticated Taggar goats (Capra aegagrus hircus, n?=?24). All animals were genotyped with the 50K goat SNP chip. Since commercial SNP chips are not designed for wild species, data analysis was done in two ways: (1) using all callable SNPs (33,698) and (2) with a reduced set of SNPs segregating within three out of four populations (662). Using these two sets of SNPs, the observed heterozygosity in Nubian ibex ranged from 0.02 to 0.44, in Alpine ibex from 0.01 to 0.38, and in Bezoar ibex from 0.13 to 0.38, when analyzing 33,698 or 662 SNPs, respectively. In domesticated Taggar goats, the values for the observed heterozygosity using all 33,698 callable SNPs and the reduced set of 662 SNPs were similar (0.40–0.41). Pairwise F_ST values for the differentiation between species ranged from 0.17–0.35 (Bezoar ibex vs. Taggar goats) to 0.47–0.91 (Bezoar vs. Alpine ibex), and was 0.33–0.90 between Bezoar and Nubian ibex, respectively, to the two sets of SNPs. The analysis of molecular variance among all animals revealed that 74–78% can be explained by differences between species, while the residual 22–26% result from differences among individuals, respectively. Cluster analysis of Nei’s genetic distance allowed to detected two distinct clusters comprising Nubian and Alpine ibex on one hand and Taggar goats and Bezoar ibex on the other hand, and clear separation of all four breeds. Principal component (PC) analysis confirmed and further refined the clusters. SNPs that contributed most to PC1 allowed us to identify genomic regions accounting for the distances between species. These regions contain known milk protein genes. The identification of milk protein genes as contributors to the differentiation between species provides insights into the domestication of wild Capra breeds.     

Microsatellite DNA and recent statistical methods in wildlife conservation management: applications in Alpine ibex [Capra ibex(ibex)

We evaluated the usefulness of microsatellites and recently developed statistical methods for the conservation management of fragmented and reintroduced populations, using the alpine ibex (Capra ibex) as a model species. First, we assessed the effects of past reintroduction programmes on genetic diversity and population differentiation considering different population sizes and histories. We show that genetic variability in ibex populations (HE 0.13) is among the lowest reported from microsatellites in mammal species, and that the Alpi Marittime-Mercantour population has suffered from a severe genetic bottleneck associated with its reintroduction. Second, using a computer-simulation approach, we provide examples and rough guidelines for translocation programmes concerning the number and origin of individuals for future reintroductions and for the reinforcement of populations with low genetic variability. Finally, we use the ibex microsatellite data to assess the usefulness of several published statistical tests for detecting population bottlenecks and assigning individuals to their population of origin. This study illustrates that microsatellites allow: (i) evaluation of alternative translocation scenarios by simulating different numbers and origins of migrants; (ii) identification of bottlenecked populations (especially using the Wilcoxon signed-ranks test); and (iii) population assignment with a high certainty (P < 0.001) of almost 100 of the individuals (or trophies or carcasses) from two distant populations (especially using stucture or whichrun software).     

Tear production in three captive wild herbivores in Israel

The Schirmer tear test (STT) I was performed to evaluate tear production in 12 captive Nubian ibex (Capra ibex nubiana), 10 captive Burchell's zebras (Equus burchelli) and five Arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx) at the Tel-Aviv Ramat-Gan Zoological Center (Israel). Mean (+/- standard deviation) STT values were 13.2 +/- 5.1 mm/min in the ibex, 23.4 +/- 3.4 mm/min in the zebra and 12.7 +/- 4.8 mm/min in the oryx. There were no significant effects of gender, age, weight, or side of the eye. There were no significant differences in STT values between ibex and oryx, but tear production in both species was significantly lower than in zebras. Knowledge of normal tear production values is important for the differential diagnosis of conjunctivitis and keratitis in these species.     

Assessing possible hybridization among managed Nubian ibex in North America

Hybridization among closely related species is a concern in zoo and aquarium populations where unpedigreed animals are frequently exchanged with the private sector. In this study, we examine possible hybridization in a group of Nubian ibex (Capra nubiana) imported into the Association of Zoos and Aquariums’ (AZA) Species Survival Program (SSP) from a private institution. These individuals appeared smaller in stature than adult SSP Nubian ibex and were excluded from breeding recommendations over the concern that they were hybrids. Twenty-six microsatellites were used to rule out recent hybridization with domestic goats, Siberian ibex (Capra sibirica), and Alpine ibex (Capra ibex). We argue that natural phenotypic variation across the large geographic range of Nubian ibex may account for the small stature of the imported ibex, as private institutions may have historically acquired individuals from locations that differed from the SSP founders. However, the imported Nubian ibex appeared genetically differentiated from the SSP Nubian ibex and may represent a source of genetic variation for the managed population.     

Temperature constraints on foraging behaviour of male Alpine ibex (Capra ibex) in summer

In arctic and alpine environments, warm summer temperatures may force a reduction in foraging time of large herbivores, whose tolerance for heat is lower than for species adapted to warmer weather. We constructed time budgets for marked ibex (Capra ibex) males over two summers to test whether warm temperatures constrained foraging behaviour and forced altitudinal migrations. As daily temperature and solar radiation increased, feeding activity was reduced at midday and evening, but increased in the early morning, probably to anticipate for an expected reduction in foraging later in the day. With increasing temperature and solar radiation, ibex moved to higher elevations where they spent very little time feeding. Changes in forage quality and availability could not explain altitudinal migration. Temperatures above 15–20°C apparently result in heat discomfort in male Alpine ibex. As temperature and solar radiation increased, older and larger ibex spent less time feeding during daylight and showed a steeper decrease in feeding time than younger and smaller ibex. Larger males may be more sensitive to temperature and solar radiation, or may have more flexibility in allocating time to different activities, given their lower relative energetic requirements. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Age-dependent genetic effects on a secondary sexual trait in male Alpine ibex, Capra ibex

Secondary sexual traits, such as horns in ungulates, may be good indicators of genetic quality because they are costly to develop. Genetic effects on such traits may be revealed by examining correlations between multilocus heterozygosity (MLH) and trait value. Correlations between MLH and fitness traits, termed heterozygosity-fitness correlations (HFC), may reflect inbreeding depression or associative overdominance of neutral microsatellite loci with loci directly affecting fitness traits. We investigated HFCs for horn growth, body mass and faecal counts of nematode eggs in wild Alpine ibex (Capra ibex). We also tested if individual inbreeding coefficients (f') estimated from microsatellite data were more strongly correlated with fitness traits than MLH. MLH was more strongly associated with trait variation than f'. We found HFC for horn growth but not for body mass or faecal counts of nematode eggs. The effect of MLH on horn growth was age-specific. The slope of the correlation between MLH and yearly horn growth changed from negative to positive as males aged, in accordance with the mutation accumulation theory of the evolution of senescence. Our results suggest that the horns of ibex males are an honest signal of genetic quality.     

甘肃马鬃山北山羊春季卧息地的选择

2010年4～5月,在甘肃马鬃山采用样线法对北山羊Capra ibex春季卧息地的选择性进行了研究,共测定了63个卧息地样方,63个对照样方.经过分析表明,北山羊卧息地选择偏好利用阳坡、上坡位、膜果麻黄与裸岩(P<0.05),同时具有海拔高、坡度大、远离道路、远离居民点、距水源较近、接近隐蔽物、隐蔽级高等特征(P<0....     

Reproductive biology of captive alpine ibex (Capra i. ibex)

We studied the reproductive biology of alpine ibex bred at the Peter & Paul Wildlife Park, St. Gallen, Switzerland, from 1930 through 1943 and 1968 through 1983. Peter & Paul Wildlife Park had supplied most of the original stock used to reestablish ibex populations in the European Alps after they had become extinct. Ibex females were seasonally polyestrous. Their estrous cycle averaged 20 days, and their gestation period averaged 167 days. Females between 1 and 15 years of age on average produced 0.78 young per year; females between 3 and 13 years of age produced 0.99 young per year. The average age at which captive ibex females gave birth was 8.44 years. Sex ratio at birth was unbiased. More singletons than twins were born, but the proportion of twins born during the years 1968 through 1983 was higher than during the earlier study period. There were no differences in the survival rates of male or female and single or twin offspring.     

Detection of Dichelobacter nodosus in wild ungulates (Capra ibex ibex and Ovis aries musimon) and domestic sheep suffering from foot rot using a two-step polymerase chain reaction

Severe keratinous hoof afflictions have been recorded in ibex (Capra ibex ibex) since 1995 and more recently in mouflon (Ovis aries musimon) in Switzerland. Based on clinical observations and comparison with diseases known to affect domestic ungulates, it was hypothesized these wild ungulates were affected by foot rot associated with infection with Dichelobacter nodosus. Dichelobacter nodosus has been shown to be the essential pathogen for initiation and establishment of foot rot, a highly contagious foot disease of sheep and goats. Because these bacteria could not be cultivated from affected ibex, we developed a nested polymerase chain reaction that allowed detection of D. nodosus without culture. Using this assay, we were able to diagnose D. nodosus infections of ibex, mouflon, and domestic sheep in natural outbreaks. From these results we conclude that D. nodosus plays an etiological role in foot rot not only in domestic but also in wild Caprinae.     

Microsatellite-based genotyping of MHC class II DRB1 gene in Iberian and Alpine ibex

In an analysis of a microsatellite locus (OLADRB1) linked to the MHC DRB1 gene of Iberian and Alpine ibex (Capra pyrenaica and Carpa ibex), we detected strong linkage disequilibrium between both loci. The allele length polymorphism at OLADRB1 was unambiguously linked to a particular DRB1 allele. This allowed us to develop a DRB-STR matching method for both ibex species. Validation of the DRB-STR matching method was performed in 160 Iberian ibex from Spain and 98 Alpine ibex from Switzerland and Italy. This simple and relatively inexpensive protocol may find wide applications in a variety of research areas (e.g., mate choice, pathogen-driven selection) and in the biological conservation and management of the Western European ibex populations.     

Effects of food quality, diet preference and water on patch use by Nubian ibex

Measuring patch use of a forager can reveal not only its cost and benefits from foraging, but also the importance of environmental factors and the significance of energy, nutrients and predation risk to its fitness. In order to assess the effects of various variables that may affect the foraging behavior of free-ranging Nubian ibex in the Negev Desert, Israel, giving-up densities (GUD) in artificial food patches were measured following Kotler et al. In particular, we tested the effects of food quality and water availability on Nubian ibex foraging behavior. To do so, we (1) tested whether the tannic acid content of food affected diet preferences, (2) assayed their diet selection strategy, (3) tested if the foraging decisions of the Nubian ibex were affected by the availability of water and (4) determined the nutritional relationship between food resources and water. Nubian ibex had lower GUDs and used resources patches more intensively where water was available, the food quality was higher and the location was closer to the escape terrain. Nubian ibex showed an expanding specialist diet selection when exploiting resource patches with a mix of items that differ in quality. Overall, food and water were complementary resources for Nubian ibex, and tannins reduced food quality. These factors help to determine patch foraging behavior decisions in Nubian ibex and contribute to habitat quality.     

Development of resistance to sarcoptic mange in ibex

Sarcoptic mange affects mammal host species worldwide and, particularly, wild Caprinae throughout much of Eurasia. In the Iberian Peninsula, several outbreaks of sarcoptic mange in Iberian ibex (Capra pyrenaica) have been reported since the 1980s. Using data from a period of long-term monitoring and a seasonal autoregressive integrated moving average (SARIMA)-generalized autoregressive conditional heteroscedasticity (GARCH) model approach, we performed a time-series analysis of the monthly prevalence of sarcoptic mange in the Iberian ibex population in Sierra Nevada Natural Space in southern Spain. In January 2003–March 2021, we documented a significant negative trend in sarcoptic mange prevalence, albeit with some interannual peaks. These findings can only be explained if a certain level of resistance to sarcoptic mange exists in hosts that, along with other factors, could provoke this reduced prevalence. Prevalence values varied seasonally, with maximum values in spring and minimum values at the end of summer, which may be due to factors linked to climate, host behavior, and endocrine activity. Our model predicts that the prevalence of sarcoptic mange in the Iberian ibex will continue to decrease over the next 2 years. Despite the inherent challenges involved, diagnosing and monitoring of wildlife diseases are integral to obtaining reliable epidemiological data and designing appropriate management strategies.     

Effects of climate on population fluctuations of ibex

Predicting the effects of the expected changes in climate on the dynamics of populations require that critical periods for climate‐induced changes in population size are identified. Based on time series analyses of 26 Swiss ibex (Capra ibex) populations, we show that variation in winter climate affected the annual changes in population size of most of the populations after accounting for the effects of density dependence and demographic stochasticity. In addition, precipitation during early summer also influenced the population fluctuations. This suggests that the major influences of climate on ibex population dynamics operated either through loss of individuals during winter or early summer, or through an effect on fecundity. However, spatial covariation in these climate variables was not able to synchronize the population fluctuations of ibex over larger distances, probably due to large spatial heterogeneity in the effects of single climate variables on different populations. Such spatial variation in the influence of the same climate variable on the local population dynamics suggests that predictions of influences of climate change need to account for local differences in population dynamical responses to climatic conditions.