Sensitive and specific detection of Listeria monocytogenes in milk and ground beef with the polymerase chain reaction.

A sensitive and specific method for detection of Listeria monocytogenes in milk and ground-beef samples is described. It consists of culturing samples in listeria enrichment broth (LEB) and subculturing them from LEB to listeria plating media, followed by DNA extraction and species-specific detection of the organism by using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). In developing the L. monocytogenes PCR assay, five oligonucleotide primers complementary to the nucleotide sequence of the listeriolysin O gene were synthesized and used in amplification experiments. PCR products of the predicted size, based on nucleotide sequence information, were generated with DNA from all of 72 L. monocytogenes strains with five different primer pairs. DNA from Listeria ivanovii, Listeria innocua, Listeria seeligeri, Listeria welshimeri, Listeria grayi, and Listeia murrayi strains and a panel of 47 bacterial strains representing 17 genera did not generate PCR products with the primer pairs employed. As little as 1 pg of L. monocytogenes DNA could be detected with the assay. To determine the most sensitive culture protocol to use in conjunction with the PCR assay, milk (10 ml) and ground-beef (25 g) samples were inoculated with L. monocytogenes at concentrations ranging from 0 to 10(5) CFU ml-1 or g-1, as appropriate for the sample. PCR assays on DNA extracted from growth on listeria plating media, inoculated with 24-h LEB samples cultures, were most sensitive, allowing detection of as little as 0.1 CFU of L. monocytogenes ml-1 or g-1 of milk and ground beef, respectively.     

Sensitive and specific detection of Listeria monocytogenes in milk and ground beef with the polymerase chain reaction.

A sensitive and specific method for detection of Listeria monocytogenes in milk and ground-beef samples is described. It consists of culturing samples in listeria enrichment broth (LEB) and subculturing them from LEB to listeria plating media, followed by DNA extraction and species-specific detection of the organism by using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). In developing the L. monocytogenes PCR assay, five oligonucleotide primers complementary to the nucleotide sequence of the listeriolysin O gene were synthesized and used in amplification experiments. PCR products of the predicted size, based on nucleotide sequence information, were generated with DNA from all of 72 L. monocytogenes strains with five different primer pairs. DNA from Listeria ivanovii, Listeria innocua, Listeria seeligeri, Listeria welshimeri, Listeria grayi, and Listeia murrayi strains and a panel of 47 bacterial strains representing 17 genera did not generate PCR products with the primer pairs employed. As little as 1 pg of L. monocytogenes DNA could be detected with the assay. To determine the most sensitive culture protocol to use in conjunction with the PCR assay, milk (10 ml) and ground-beef (25 g) samples were inoculated with L. monocytogenes at concentrations ranging from 0 to 10(5) CFU ml-1 or g-1, as appropriate for the sample. PCR assays on DNA extracted from growth on listeria plating media, inoculated with 24-h LEB samples cultures, were most sensitive, allowing detection of as little as 0.1 CFU of L. monocytogenes ml-1 or g-1 of milk and ground beef, respectively.     

T cell recognition of listeriolysin O is induced during infection with Listeria monocytogenes

During bacterial multiplication, Listeria monocytogenes (strain EGD) secretes sulfhydryl-dependent cytotoxin, termed listeriolysin O, a virulence factor presumable promoting intracellular growth of this ubiquitous pathogen. The role of this exotoxin in the process of T cell activation was studied in vivo during the course of an experimental infection in the mouse. By using highly purified listeriolysin O, it was found that infection with viable, replicative bacteria induced in vivo the emergence of T cells specifically reacting against this exotoxin, as demonstrated by eliciting the expression of delayed-type hypersensitivity to listeriolysin O in Listeria-immune mice. The kinetics of this inflammatory reaction followed the same pattern as that observed with crude Listeria antigenic preparation classically used for the detection of delayed-type hypersensitivity, with a peak of expression by day 6 and a slow decline over the next 3 wk to a residual level, indicating the presence of memory T cells reacting with the exotoxin. This result, therefore, allowed us to identify for the first time that a pure immunogenic molecule secreted by L. monocytogenes is specifically recognized by sensitized T cells induced during the course of infection by L. monocytogenes. The expression of T cell-mediated immunity to listeriolysin O was generated by very low amounts of replicative bacteria, indicating that the exotoxin released in host tissues during the process of intracellular growth is highly immunogenic. Our data favor the view that the binding of listeriolysin O to the membrane cholesterol might be a critical event potentiating the in vivo expression of delayed sensitivity against this exotoxin. Indeed, the insertion of listeriolysin O into the cell membrane induced resistance to enzymatic proteolysis and membrane-bound listeriolysin O was significantly more effective in inducing delayed inflammatory reaction in Listeria-immune mice.     

Listeria monocytogenes in pasteurized milk

An haemolytic Listeria monocytogenes strain pathogenic to mice was isolated from 6 out of 28 (21.4%) pasteurized milk samples (3.2% fat milk treated at 78 degrees C for 15 s) marketed by a Madrid processing plant. Listeria grayi was recovered from 25 of the samples (89.2%) and L. innocua from 3 samples (10.7%). One milk sample was contaminated with L. welshimeri. No strains of L. ivanovii, L. seeligeri, L. murrayi, or L. denitrificans were isolated. These results show that pathogenic Listeria strains can be isolated from pasteurized milk and reinforce the hypothesis that this food product may be the source of numerous human listeriosis.     

Secretion of different listeriolysin cognates by recombinant attenuated Salmonella typhimurium: superior efficacy of haemolytic over non-haemolytic constructs after oral vaccination

Viable antigen (Ag) delivery systems expressing defined pathogen-derived proteins represent powerful candidates for future vaccination strategies. Here, recombinant (r)Salmonella typhimurium aroA strains secreting listeriolysin (Hly) of Listeria monocytogenes in haemolytic or non-haemolytic form were constructed to direct these carriers into cytosolic or phagosomal host cell compartments, respectively. Oral and intravenous (i.v.) vaccination of mice with either construct induced 'transporter associated with antigen processing'-dependent protection against the intracellular bacterial pathogen L. monocytogenes. Comparison of oral immunization with both rSalmonella constructs revealed superior vaccine efficacy of the haemolytic rS. typhimurium Hlys construct as compared to the non-haemolytic rSalmonella Hlys(492) strain. In contrast, efficacy of i.v. vaccination with either rSalmonella strain did not significantly differ. Therefore, rSalmonella strains secreting biologically active Hly represent valuable delivery systems for heterologous rAg or DNA which should be exploited for future mucosal vaccination strategies.     

Intracellular growth of Listeria monocytogenes insertional mutant deprived of protein p60

The study of the mutant strain described here demonstrates that several characteristics contribute to maximal virulence of pathogenic strains of L. monocytogenes. The invasion levels of L. monocytogenes JB1115, a p60-deficient strain, were the same as for the parent strain L. monocytogenes 1043S in J774 macrophage-like cells. The invasion level of Listeria strains in Int407 cells was 100 times lower than in J774 cells. In epithelial Int407 cells, the time of division of p60- strain L. monocytogenes JB1115 was 43% slower than for the parent strain. In this study, two lisosomotrophic agents, ammonium chloride and chlorquinoline were tested in experimental L. monocytogenes 1043S and p60-deprived mutant JB1115 infection in both cell lines. The presence of ammonium chloride increased the level of infection (calculated as number of gentamicin-resistant cells) of both Listeria strains, but in the case of infection by p60 mutant, the increased amount of ammonium chloride showed only a minimal effect on the number of isolated bacteria. In both cell lines treated with chlorquinoline we observed a decrease in the number of viable intracellular bacteria isolated from infected monolayers. Our observation of parental and mutated strains of Listeria showed that phospholipase activity also depends on the presence of p60 protein. Mutated strain showed 31.46% reduction of PI-PLC activity measured in normal growth conditions. Protein p60 plays a role not only in listeriolysin O mediated haemolytic activity but full phospholipase C activity is also dependent on the presence of the Iap protein.     

Identification of hypervariable and conservative fragments of Listeria genome

The computer analysis revealed hypervariable and highly conservative fractions in the genes of Gram-positive bacteria of the Listeria genus. As a result of analysis of gene iap coding protein p60, PCR based test systems for detection of 6 Listeria species, L. monocytogenes, L. seeligeri, L. ivanovii, L. innocua, L. grayi and L. welshimeri have been developed. Species-specific and conservative gene fragments coding Listeria pathogenicity factors, listeriolysin and cytolysin, were detected. The sets of primers for detection and gene typing of L. monocytogenes, L. seeligeri and L. ivanovii containing cytolysin have been made. The gene typing of Listeria may be carried out in one reaction with the use of multiplex PCR: amplified fragments for different Listeria species differ in the length of the amplified product. The developed sets of primers have a 95-100% degree of homology and may be recommended for the detection and gene typing of Listeria.     

Cloning of the listeriolysin O gene and development of specific gene probes for Listeria monocytogenes

A clone containing 3.1 kb of Listeria DNA was selected from a gene library of Listeria monocytogenes Scott A strain. The Escherichia coli clone produced hemolysin on sheep blood agar and in sonicated extracts but very little in the culture supernatant. This 3.1-kb DNA fragment and a 650-bp HindIII fragment located within the listeriolysin gene were used as probes in a colony hybridization assay. Both probes were specific for L. monocytogenes and did not hybridize with any other Listeria strains at high stringency. Two synthetic probes, one from the 650-bp HindIII fragment and one from the carboxy-terminal region of the protein, were also specific for L. monocytogenes.     

Cloning of the listeriolysin O gene and development of specific gene probes for Listeria monocytogenes.

A clone containing 3.1 kb of Listeria DNA was selected from a gene library of Listeria monocytogenes Scott A strain. The Escherichia coli clone produced hemolysin on sheep blood agar and in sonicated extracts but very little in the culture supernatant. This 3.1-kb DNA fragment and a 650-bp HindIII fragment located within the listeriolysin gene were used as probes in a colony hybridization assay. Both probes were specific for L. monocytogenes and did not hybridize with any other Listeria strains at high stringency. Two synthetic probes, one from the 650-bp HindIII fragment and one from the carboxy-terminal region of the protein, were also specific for L. monocytogenes.     

Listeriolysin O secretion by Listeria monocytogenes in the presence of cysteine and sorbate

The influence of cysteine or cysteine-HCl and their combination with potassium sorbate on growth of Listeria monocytogenes and listeriolysin O (LLO) secretion, and on activation of LLO in the haemolysin assay system was studied. Both cysteine and cysteine-HCl (10 and 20 mmol 1^-1) enhanced LLO secretion in tryptic soy broth supplemented with yeast extract during 24 h incubation at 35°C. While sorbate did not affect growth, it suppressed both LLO secretion and LLO activation by cysteine in the haemolysin activity assay. These findings provide further evidence that sulphydryl-containing enzymes are implicated in the mechanism of microbial inhibition of sorbate. Addition of sorbate to foods has the potential of inactivating listeriolysin and other thiol-dependent toxins.     

Prevalence of Listeria sp. in droppings from urban rooks (Corvus frugilegus)

Droppings from 112 urban rooks ( Corvus frugilegus ) were cultured for the presence of Listeria sp. Overall, 46% of rooks sampled harboured one or more Listeria species. Of all birds examined, 33%, 24% and 8%, respectively, were infected with Listeria monocytogenes, Listeria innocua and Listeria seeligeri. Differentiation of L. monocytogenes and L. seeligeri carried out by several phenotypic typing methods proved the diversity of strains and the major role of rooks which widely contribute to spreading this bacteria in our environment. The results also suggest that the ability to recover specific Listeria strains from the same sample is at least partially dependent on the methodology. These findings reinforce the need for strain-specific typing of multiple L. monocytogenes isolates from the same sample.     

Heteroduplex mobility assay for the identification of Listeria sp and Listeria monocytogenes strains: application to characterisation of strains from sludge and food samples

One hundred and ten Listeria sp. isolates from sewage sludge were identified according to phenotypic and genotypic methods. The Listeria sp. strains isolated from five types of sludge from three sewage treatment plants in Angers (France) and the surrounding area included L. monocytogenes (55.5%), L. innocua (29.1%), L. seeligeri (13.6%) and L. welshimeri (1.8%). The majority of L. monocytogenes strains belonged to serotypes 4b, 1/2b and 1/2a. Moreover, a heteroduplex mobility assay based on the 16S rRNA sequences was tested for its ability to identify the six species of the genus Listeria. This study, performed on 283 Listeria sp. strains from human, food and sewage sludge samples, showed that all the species were distinguishable from one another. L. innocua and L. seeligeri showed respectively three and two distinct banding patterns. Within L. monocytogenes, four groups (I-IV) were defined. The majority of food and environmental isolates were clustered in group I and it is noteworthy that group IV clustered epidemiologic isolates and strains belonging to serotypes 4b, 1/2a and 1/2b.     

Comparison of the efficacy of different techniques, culture media, and sources of blood in determining the hemolytic activity of Listeria spp.

Hemolytic activity is a fundamental criterion for the differentiation of Listeria species; therefore, a simple and inexpensive procedure to clearly distinguish hemolytic strains from each other and from nonhemolytic strains would be of great aid. We compared the efficacy of several techniques, culture media, and types of blood in demonstrating the hemolysis of Listeria spp. The hemolytic activities of Listeria monocytogenes and Listeria seeligeri were more easily detected with a red blood cell top-layer (RBCTL) technique and with a microplate technique than when the strains were streaked on blood agar (BA). Listeria ivanovii produced a marked hemolysis regardless of the technique employed. In general, the hemolytic activity of these three species was stronger on media containing brain heart infusion (BHI) agar and (or) potassium tellurite (PT). However, Listeria innocua produced questionable hemolytic reactions when nonselective culture media with BHI and PT were utilized, limiting the advantages gained by employing the two compounds. The RBCTL and the BA techniques disclosed greater hemolytic activity for L. monocytogenes, L. seeligeri, and L. ivanovii with sheep and guinea pig blood than with horse and human blood. When the microplate technique was used, all four kinds of blood were equally effective.     

Evaluation of the API test, phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase C activity and PCR method in identification of Listeria monocytogenes in meat foods

The aim of this work was to compare the possibility of identifying Listeria monocytogenes strains isolated from meat and sausage on the basis of the API-Listeria test, production of phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase C (PI-PLC) and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for a DNA fragment of the hlyA gene encoding listeriolysin O. Forty-six strains were isolated and examined. The lethality of some Listeria isolates for BALB/c mice was also determined. In this study, all isolates identified as L. monocytogenes in the API test gave a positive signal in the PCR. Listeriae identified as L. innocua or L. welshimeri in the API test were negative in the PCR conducted with the primers for listeriolysin O. All strains identified as L. monocytogenes on the basis of the API test and the PCR produced PI-PLC. However, this activity was not limited to the bacteria of this species. Four out of 17 L. innocua and three out of 10 L. welshimeri isolates were PI-PLC-positive. None of the L. innocua or L. welshimeri isolates (neither PI-PLC+ or PI-PLC-) showed lethality for BALB/c mice. In contrast, two L. monocytogenes isolates as well as a reference L. monocytogenes strain killed all mice used for the experiment.     

Evaluation of hybridization characteristics of a cloned pRF106 probe for Listeria monocytogenes detection and development of a nonisotopic colony hybridization assay

An internal fragment (pRF106 fragment, ca. 500 bp) of a gene (msp) coding for a 60-kDa protein of Listeria monocytogenes serotype 1/2a was used to develop a screening method to discriminate between L. monocytogenes and avirulent Listeria spp. on primary isolation plates. The L. monocytogenes-derived probe fragment of pRF106 hybridized to a 13-kb fragment of L. monocytogenes and a 3-kb fragment of one cheese isolate strain of Listeria seeligeri under stringent hybridization conditions (mean thermal denaturation temperature [Tm]-5 degrees C). The probe also hybridized to a 6-kb fragment of Listeria innocua, Listeria ivanovii, and L. seeligeri under less stringent hybridization conditions (Tm-17 degrees C). The pRF106 fragment was labeled with digoxigenin-11-dUTP and used to develop a colony hybridization assay. Colonies from lithium chloride-phenylethanol-moxalactam agar were blotted onto nylon membranes. The cells were pretreated with microwaves before lysis with sodium hydroxide. DNA-DNA hybridization and posthybridization washing were done at high stringency (Tm-7 degrees C). The nonisotopic colony hybridization procedure was specific for L. monocytogenes when evaluated against pure cultures of L. monocytogenes and other Listeria species, excluding the cheese isolate of L. seeligeri. Also, it was specific for L. monocytogenes when evaluated with Listeria-negative food enrichment cultures that were inoculated in the laboratory with Listeria species.     

Evaluation of hybridization characteristics of a cloned pRF106 probe for Listeria monocytogenes detection and development of a nonisotopic colony hybridization assay.

An internal fragment (pRF106 fragment, ca. 500 bp) of a gene (msp) coding for a 60-kDa protein of Listeria monocytogenes serotype 1/2a was used to develop a screening method to discriminate between L. monocytogenes and avirulent Listeria spp. on primary isolation plates. The L. monocytogenes-derived probe fragment of pRF106 hybridized to a 13-kb fragment of L. monocytogenes and a 3-kb fragment of one cheese isolate strain of Listeria seeligeri under stringent hybridization conditions (mean thermal denaturation temperature [Tm]-5 degrees C). The probe also hybridized to a 6-kb fragment of Listeria innocua, Listeria ivanovii, and L. seeligeri under less stringent hybridization conditions (Tm-17 degrees C). The pRF106 fragment was labeled with digoxigenin-11-dUTP and used to develop a colony hybridization assay. Colonies from lithium chloride-phenylethanol-moxalactam agar were blotted onto nylon membranes. The cells were pretreated with microwaves before lysis with sodium hydroxide. DNA-DNA hybridization and posthybridization washing were done at high stringency (Tm-7 degrees C). The nonisotopic colony hybridization procedure was specific for L. monocytogenes when evaluated against pure cultures of L. monocytogenes and other Listeria species, excluding the cheese isolate of L. seeligeri. Also, it was specific for L. monocytogenes when evaluated with Listeria-negative food enrichment cultures that were inoculated in the laboratory with Listeria species.     

Occurrence of Listeria species in raw milk and dairy products produced in Northern Ireland.

The overall incidence of Listeria spp. in raw milk samples surveyed was found to be 25.0% (Listeria monocytogenes 15.3%), with the incidence in samples from processing centres 54.0% (L. monocytogenes 33.3%); this was higher than that in samples from dairy farms (Listeria spp. 8.8%; L. monocytogenes 5.3%). The FDA enrichment procedure was much more productive than cold enrichment and Oxford agar was superior to modified McBride agar for isolation of Listeria. Listeria monocytogenes was never isolated by direct plating of raw milk samples on Oxford agar at a detection level of 1.0 cfu/ml. Listeria spp. were isolated from 1 of 95 pasteurized milk samples (L. monocytogenes) and 1 of 33 soft cheese samples (L. seeligeri). Restriction fragment length polymorphism was more useful than sero- or phage-typing for typing of L. monocytogenes strains, and results suggest that specific L. monocytogenes strains may persist in both farm and processing environments.     

Detection of Listeria monocytogenes in cheese with the magnetic immuno-polymerase chain reaction assay.

A new detection system, the magnetic immuno-polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay (MIPA) has been developed to detect Listeria monocytogenes in food. This method separates Listeria cells from PCR-inhibitory factors present in enrichment broths containing food samples by using magnetic beads coated with specific monoclonal antibodies (MAbs). The separated bacteria were lysed, and the supernatant containing the bacterial DNA was subjected to the PCR. Detection of L. monocytogenes in three naturally contaminated cheese samples with two different MAbs and PCR primers specific for the gene encoding the delayed-hypersensitivity factor showed that with MAb 55 all three samples were positive whereas with MAb A two samples were positive. A further improvement of the method was obtained by using a PCR step based on the listeriolysin O gene. A MIPA employing MAb 55 and the listeriolysin O gene primer set detected L. monocytogenes after 24 h of culture in Listeria Enrichment Broth samples from Port Salut artificially contaminated with 40 CFU/25 g. We could detect 1 CFU of L. monocytogenes per g of cheese after a second enrichment for 24 h in Fraser broth. The analysis time including both enrichments is approximately 55 h.     

Sub-lethal damage of Listeria monocytogenes after long-term chilled storage at 4 degrees C

The possibility that long term in vitro chilled storage may result in sub-lethal damage to Listeria monocytogenes cells was investigated by comparing growth of chill-stored (starvation at 4 degrees C) and fresh cultures on selective and non-selective media. Growth of freshly grown cells was minimally (3-8%) affected by selective LSAMM agar compared with non-selective Brain Heart Infusion agar. In contrast, numbers of chill-stored strains were reduced by greater than 99% after direct plating on the same selective and non-selective media. Furthermore, chill-stored strains were able to grow in standard selective broth (Listeria Selective broth and Fraser broth) only if undiluted inocula (approximately 10(5)-10(6) cfu ml-1) were used, whereas they were capable of growth in Brain Heart Infusion broth even when the lowest dilutions were used (approximately 10(1) cfu ml-1). The potential public health consequences of this finding for the isolation of Listeria monocytogenes from foods is considered.     

Petite colony formation by Listeria monocytogenes and Listeria species grown on esculin-containing agar

Several strains of Listeria species formed petite-sized colonies from parent stock cultures when grown on agar media containing 0.2-1% (w/v) esculin. This was observed in Listeria monocytogenes (7/22 strains), L. innocua (1/3), L. grayi (1/1), L. seeligeri (1/3), and L. welshimeri (1/1), but not in L. ivanovii (0/1) and L. murrayi (0/1). This phenomenon was only observed on agar media that contained esculin. All petite isolates had biotyping profiles identical to their larger, normal-sized counterpart isolates. Normal and petite-sized isolates from two L. monocytogenes strains, Scott A and V7, were pathogenic to immunosuppressed white mice. On media containing 0.5% (w/v) esculin + ferric iron, Listeria cultures produced colony diameters intermediate in size between those of normal and petite cultures. When pregrown in glucose broth, all petite isolates demonstrated visible beta-glucosidase (esculinase) activity within 5 min, while the normal-sized isolates showed beta-glucosidase activity only after at least 20-70 min. This evidence suggests that cells forming petite colonies are beta-glucosidase constitutive variants within the parent population, while cells that form normal-sized colonies are inducible for beta-glucosidase (esculinase) activity. A possible role for the esculin hydrolysis product, esculetin, in causing petite colony formation is discussed.