Determination of salicylate,gentisic acid and salicyluric acid in human urine by capillary electrophoresis with laser-induced fluorescence detection

Acetylsalicylic acid (Aspirin) is rapidly metabolized to salicylic acid (salicylate) and other compounds, including gentisic acid and salicyluric acid. Monitoring of salicylate and its metabolites is of toxicological, pharmacological and biomedical interest. Three capillary electrophoresis (CE) methods featuring alkaline aqueous buffers, laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) detection and no solute extraction or derivatization have been explored. A competitive binding, electrokinetic capillary-based immunoassay is developed that recognizes the presence of salicylate and gentisic acid in urine. Differentiation of the two compounds, however, is problematic. With appropriate ultraviolet excitation, many salicylate-related compounds are fluorescent so that CE with direct urine injection and LIF detection permits the determination of salicylate, gentisic acid and salicyluric acid. Using a HeCd laser with 325 nm produces interference-free monitoring of all three compounds. Using 257 nm excitation from a frequency doubled Ar ion laser, native fluorescence of an endogenous urinary compound that co-migrates with gentisic acid is observed. With wavelength-resolved fluorescence detection, however, the two substances are distinguished. Furthermore, this technique, with comparison to literature data, permits the putative assignment of several peaks to other salicylate metabolites, namely glucuronide conjugates of salicylate and salicyluric acid. All three CE-LIF techniques have been applied to toxicological patient urines and urines collected after ingestion of 500 mg acetylsalicylic acid. CE results compare favorably with those obtained by a commercial fluorescence polarization immunoassay and by a conventional photometric assay.     

Determination of dopamine and methoxycatecholamines in patient urine by liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection and by capillary electrophoresis coupled with spectrophotometry and mass spectrometry

The applicability of capillary electrophoresis (CE) with UV and mass spectrometric (MS) detection for the determination of dopamine and methoxycatecholamines in urine was evaluated in comparison with the liquid chromatography-electrochemical detection (LC-EC) method widely used in catecholamine analysis. The catecholamines in urine were deconjugated with acid or enzyme hydrolysis, purified by cation exchange (CEX) or solid-phase extraction (SPE) with a copolymer of N-divinylpyrrolidone and divinylbenzene and analyzed by LC-EC, CE-UV, and CE-MS. Acid hydrolysis was more effective in the deconjugation than enzymatic hydrolysis with Helix pomatia. However, the recoveries of HMBA, DA and NMN from spiked samples were less than 30% after acid hydrolysis and SPE purification. The CEX purification was more efficient than SPE in removing matrix compounds from the urine samples. The limits of detection were lower in LC-EC analysis than in CE-UV or CE-MS. Many factors in the analytical procedure caused deviations in the concentrations measured for urinary dopamine and methoxycatecholamines. The recovery of HMBA, which was used as the internal standard, was poor after acid hydrolysis and SPE purification. The purification methods were validated in conjunction with the analytical methods and therefore cross analysis was unsuccessful. The LC-EC method was the most sensitive, but CE-UV and CE-MS were sensitive enough for the determination of dopamine and methoxycatecholamines even in healthy patient urine. The EC and MS detections were superior to the UV detection in specificity since, after acid hydrolysis, some matrix compounds were migrating close to I.S., DA and 3MT.     

Capillary electrophoresis and capillary electrophoresis-ion trap multiple-stage mass spectrometry for the differentiation and identification of oxycodone and its major metabolites in human urine

Oxycodone (OCOD) and its metabolites, including oxymorphone (OMOR), noroxycodone (NOCOD) and noroxymorphone (NOMOR), are opioids that carry an OH group at position 14. Using capillary electrophoresis (CE) with a binary phosphate buffer containing 60% ethylene glycol (pH 7.9), the migration order of OCOD and OMOR with respect to their N-demethylated analogs was found to be reversed compared to that observed for codeine, dihydrocodeine, morphine and dihydromorphine, compounds that do not have an OH group at position 14. OCOD and structurally related compounds can also be distinguished from these opioids by their absorbance spectra at low wavelengths and via a characteristic neutral H2O loss at the MS2 level. Using the binary phosphate buffer, CE with UV detection is shown to be capable of monitoring OCOD, NOCOD, OMOR (after hydrolysis only) and NOMOR (after hydrolysis and in patient urine only) in alkaline liquid-liquid extracts of urines that were collected after ingestion of 10 mg OCOD hydrochloride and in a patient urine collected at steady state (80 mg OCOD hydrochloride daily). Using an aqueous pH 9 ammonium acetate buffer, these results were confirmed by CE-MS3. Based on CE-MS, MS2 and MS3 data, the absorbance spectra measured across the CE peaks and the relative position within the electropherogram, two peaks monitored in the UV absorbance electropherograms could be assigned to the two keto-reduced metabolites 6oxycodol (60COL) and nor6oxycodol, for which no standards were available. Comparison of data obtained with urines pretreated with two different enzyme products (beta-glucuronidase and beta-glucuronidase/arylsulfatase) suggest that OCOD, NOCOD and 6OCOL are mainly glucuronidated, whereas OMOR mainly forms other conjugates. Furthermore, in a first attempt to directly measure conjugates of the compounds of interest, solid-phase extracts were analyzed by CE-MS4, which revealed the presence of the acyl glucuronides of 6OCOL and OMOR and an unidentified OMOR conjugate. The quantitation of free OCOD and NOCOD by CE-MS using deuterated internal standards is also discussed briefly.     

Immunological analysis of methamphetamine antibody and its use for the detection of methamphetamine by capillary electrophoresis with laser-induced fluorescence

An accurate, simple and rapid immunoassay is demonstrated for the detection of methamphetamine in urine by capillary electrophoresis (CE) with laser-induced fluorescence (LIF). An aminobutyl derivative of methamphetamine was conjugated with proteins, and used as an immunogen to produce antibodies for the assay. The methamphetamine derivative was also labeled with fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) to compete with free methamphetamine in the sample for the antibody binding site. Levels of free and antibody-bound FITC-labeled methamphetamine were monitored by performing CE–LIF using an untreated fused-silica column. This competitive immunoassay used antiserum instead of purified antibody or antibody fragment, yet was found to have good precision with a sensitivity of lower than 20 ng/ml. Various antibodies were also screened, and cross-reactivity of anti-MA antibody with methamphetamine analogues were also investigated. The results indicate that CE–LIF-based immunoassay is a powerful tool for the screening and characterization of antibody and may have possible applications in the detection of abused drugs in urine.     

Capillary electrophoresis-mass spectrometry as a characterization tool for therapeutic proteins

With the increasing use of capillary electrophoresis (CE) in the biotechnology industry, there is a demand for analytical tools and methodology that can be used to characterize CE profiles. This article describes the implementation and optimization of a robust online CE-mass spectrometry (CE-MS) system used for the characterization of several CE assays developed at Genentech Inc. These assays include CE as a complement to reverse-phase peptide mapping for the identification of small peptides eluting in the void volume, profiling N-linked glycopeptide heterogeneity, and determining O-linked site occupancy. In addition, CE-MS was used to confirm major 8-aminopyrene-1,3,6-trisulfonate (APTS)-labeled glycans released from recombinant antibodies that are routinely profiled by CE-laser-induced fluorescence (CE-LIF). For each study, CE-MS was able to successfully identify components seen in UV or LIF electropherograms, thereby expanding the capability of CE and CE-MS for profiling biomolecules.     

Determination of triamterene and its main metabolite hydroxytriamterene sulfate in human urine by capillary electrophoresis using ultraviolet absorbance and laser-induced fluorescence detection

Two capillary electrophoresis methods have been developed for the direct determination of triamterene and its main metabolite hydroxytriamterene sulfate in human urine. Analytes were detected using conventional UV detection as well as laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) detection with an HeCd-laser operating at a wavelength of 325 nm. The results of both detection techniques were compared. Indeed, the limit of quantification was eightfold lower using LIF detection (50 ng/ml) in comparison to UV detection (400 ng/ml). As no interference due to endogenous urine compounds was observed, direct urine analysis was feasible. Analysis was very simple and fast-one run could be performed within less than 10 min (CE-UV method) and 2.5 min (CE-LIF method), respectively. Both assays were fully validated and applied to urine samples from a human volunteer. The results of the application of the CE-LIF method to human urine samples are presented in this publication.     

Comparison of different techniques for the analysis of metallothionein isoforms by capillary electrophoresis

We have investigated free-solution capillary electrophoresis (FSCE) and micellar electrokinetic capillary chromatography (MECC) separations of metallothionein (MT) isoforms conducted in uncoated and surface-modified fused-silica capillaries. At alkaline pH, FSCE rapidly resolves isoforms belonging to the MT-1 and MT-2 charge classes. At acidic pH, additional resolution of MT isoforms is achieved. The use of high-ionic-strength (0.5 M) phosphate buffers can result in high peak efficiencies and increased resolution for some MT isoforms. Interior capillary surface coatings such as polyamine and linear polyacrylamide polymers permit separation of MT isoforms with enhanced resolution through their effects on electroosmotic flow (EOF) and protein-wall interactions. Improvements in MT isoform resolution can also be achieved by MECC using 100 mM borate buffer pH 8.4 containing 75 mM SDS. Deproteinization of tissue cytosol samples with acetonitrile (60–80%) or perchloric acid (7%) produces extracts that can be subjected to direct analysis of MT by FSCE or MECC. We conclude that optimal separation of MT isoforms by capillary electrophoresis (CE) can be achieved with the appropriate combination of different capillaries, buffers and sample preparation techniques.     

Relationship of urinary kallikrein excretion to urinary potassium excretion during furosemide administration with and without amiloride

The relationship of urinary kallikrein excretion to urine volume, and to urinary sodium and potassium excretions was studied in normal rats during furosemide diuresis and superimposed injection of amiloride, a K+-sparing diuretic. Continuous infusion of furosemide increased urinary kallikrein, sodium and potassium excretions and the urine volume. Amiloride injection during furosemide diuresis caused further increase in diuresis and natriuresis, but a prompt decrease in urinary kallikrein excretion to basal level, and potassium excretion to below the basal level. The significant correlation of urinary kallikrein excretion to urinary potassium excretion, but not to urine volume and urinary sodium excretion after amiloride injection suggests that the major determinant of urinary kallikrein excretion is renal potassium secretion through a mechanism that is affected by amiloride.     

Stereoselective determination of ofloxacin and its metabolites in human urine by capillary electrophoresis using laser-induced fluorescence detection

A capillary electrophoresis method for the simultaneous separation and enantioseparation of the antibacterial drug ofloxacin and its metabolites desmethyl ofloxacin and ofloxacin N-oxide in human urine has been developed and validated. Enantioseparation was achieved by adding sulfobutyl β-cyclodextrin to the running buffer. The detection of the analytes was performed by laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) detection using a HeCd-laser with an excitation wavelength of 325 nm. In comparison with conventional UV detection, LIF detection provides higher sensitivity and selectivity. The separation can be performed after direct injection of urine into the capillary without any sample preparation, because no matrix compounds interfere with the assay. Additionally, the high sensitivity of this method allows the quantification of the very low concentrations of enantiomers of both metabolites. The limit of quantification was 250 ng/ml for ofloxacin enantiomers and 100 ng/ml for each metabolites’ enantiomers. This method was applied to the analysis of human urine samples collected from a volunteer after oral administration of 200 mg of (±)-ofloxacin to elucidate stereoselective differences in the formation and excretion of the metabolites. It could be demonstrated that the renal excretion of the S-configured metabolites, especially S-desmethyl ofloxacin, within the first 20 h after dosage, is significantly lower than that of the R-enantiomers.     

Exploration of the metabolism of dihydrocodeine via determination of its metabolites in human urine using micellar electrokinetic capillary chromatography

After single-dose administration of 40 or 60 mg of dihydrocodeine (DHC, in a slow-release tablet) to four healthy individuals known to be extensive metabolizers of debrisoquine, the urinary excretion of DHC and its four major metabolites, dihydrocodeine-6-glucuronide, nordihydrocodeine, dihydromorphine and nordihydromorphine, was assessed using micellar electrokinetic capillary chromatography (MECC). DHC and two of its metabolites (dihydrocodeine-6-glucuronide and nordihydrocodeine) could be analyzed by direct urine injection, whereas the metabolic pattern was obtained by copolymeric bonded-phase extraction of the solutes from both plain and hydrolyzed urine specimens prior to analysis. The total DHC equivalents exceted within 8 and 24 h were determined to be 30.4 ± 7.7% (n = 5) and 63.8 ± 6.1% (n = 2), respectively, and only about 4% of the excreted DHC equivalents were identified as morphinoids. Furthermore, almost no morphinoid metabolites of DHC could be found after administration of quinidine (200 mg of quinidine sulfate) 2 h prior to DHC intake.     

Sensitive analysis of [ -Pen]enkephalin in rat serum by capillary electrophoresis and laser-induced fluorescence detection

A highly sensitive analytical method based on capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE) coupled with a laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) detector was explored for the analysis of [ -Pen^2,5]enkephalin (DPDPE) in rat serum. DPDPE and the internal standard Phe-Leu-Glu-Glu-Ile (P9396) were extracted from serum samples with C₁₈ solid-phase extraction disk cartridges, followed by derivatization with tetramethylrhodamine-5-isothiocyanate (TRITC) isomer G before introduction onto the capillary column. Complete resolution of DPDPE and the internal standard from other serum components was achieved within 20 min on a 140 cm×50 μm I.D. capillary column with borate buffer (25 mM, pH 8.3). With the current method, it is possible to detect 1.3E-18 mol of DPDPE on column. The results suggest that CZE-LIF is a promising method for the sensitive and specific quantitation of therapeutic peptides in biological matrices.     

毛细管电泳-质谱联用技术研究进展

毛细管电泳-质谱（CE-MS）联用技术兼具毛细管电泳高效分离能力与质谱高灵敏检测、高真度定性的优势,已成为物质分离分析研究的一种非常重要的工具。本文对近几年来 CE-MS 联用的关键技术及 CE-MS 在中药分析、环境检测等领域的一些应用进展进行综述,对其发展进行了展望。     

A Comparative Study of the Triphenyltetrazolium Chloride (Uroscreen) Test and Conventional Methods for the Detection of Bacteriuria

Acute urinary tract infection may be preceded by and active pyelonephritis may be associated with asymptomatic bacteriuria. Treatment of asymptomatic bacteriuria may prevent or arrest active, chronic pyelonephritis and its sequelae. Consequently, there is a need for a reliable and simple screening procedure to detect asymptomatic bacteriuria in large segments of the population.The reliability and practicability of tests advocated for the detection of bacteriuria, including the new chemical triphenyltetrazolium chloride (T.T.C.) (Uroscreen) test, were evaluated. Reliability was assessed by correlating results of these tests with bacterial counts of tested urines. Significant bacteriuria is defined as the presence of 100,000 or more organisms per ml. of urine.The T.T.C. (Uroscreen) test was positive in 92.5% of cases of bacteriuria; there were 7.5% false-negative and 2.8% false-positive results. Bacteria on Gram-stained smear were found in 95.5% of the cases of bacteriuria and in 14.6% of those with non-infected urine; pyuria (more than three leukocytes per high-power field), in 60% of those with bacteriuria and in 15.9% of those with presumably non-infected urine. Bacteria were conspicuous in the urinary sediment in 91.1% of cases of bacteriuria and in 3.7% of presumably non-infected urines.The T.T.C. (Uroscreen) test fulfilled the criteria for a reliable and simple screening procedure. It should be used concomitantly with other screening tests when the urine is examined routinely.     

Capillary electrophoresis as a verification tool for immunochemical drug screening

BACKGROUnd: The aim of this work was to develop a simple capillary electrophoretic method as the verification and confirmation tool in the screening analysis for amphetamines, opiates, benzodiazepines and cocaine and their metabolites for toxicological applications. METHODS: 50 mM phosphate Tris pH 2.0 with 30% (v/v) of methanol was used as a background electrolyte that enabled fast separation of drugs and their metabolites in saliva and urine. Verification of the data from the electrophoretic method was done by High Performance Thin Layer Chromatography (HPTLC) and the immunochemical screening test QuikScreen. RESULTS: The experimental conditions of the Capillary Electrophoresis (CE) were partially optimized (mainly the influence of concentration and types of additives, e.g. cyclodextrines, organic solvents) and validated; the method was used for analysing samples from drug abusers. CONCLUSIONS: The non-instrumental, immunoassay tests could only confirm qualitative addictions and are mainly employed when the emergency detection of drugs is needed. For quantitative analysis and verification of obtained results the confirmation step is strongly recommended. The simple screening capillary zone electrophoresis method allows recognition of the most abused drugs. The agreement of the results from CE, HPTLC and QuikScreen test was more than 95%.     

Non-competitive immunoassay for alpha-fetoprotein using micellar electrokinetic capillary chromatography and laser-induced fluorescence detection

A non-competitive immunoassay based on micellar electrokinetic capillary chromatography (MECC) with laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) detection has been developed for the determination of alpha-fetoprotein (AFP). The anti-AFP antibody was labeled with fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) and the product was used as a fluorescent tracer, then AFP was mixed with the labeled antibody. After incubation, the immune AFP-antibody complex was separated from labeled free antibody by MECC. The parameters affecting separation such as the concentration of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), the buffer pH and separation voltage were investigated and the following conditions were selected: 20 mM tetraborate containing 100 mM SDS at pH 9.50, and 20 kV separation voltage. The detection limit of this assay was 0.1 ng/ml with a linear range spanning two orders of magnitude. This method was applied to determine AFP in human serum.     

Determination of caffeine and its metabolites by micellar electrokinetic capillary electrophoresis

The determination of caffeine and its analogues is important for a wide variety of analyses and is performed in an assortment of matrices ranging from food to clinical samples. While reversed-phase HPLC has become the standard analysis protocol in most laboratories, capillary electrophoresis has the advantages of higher separation efficiency and shorter separation time. The micellar capillary electrophoresis (MECC) separation of caffeine and its metabolites, theobromine, paraxanthine, theophylline and 1,3,7-trimethyluric acid was investigated using sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) as the micellar phase. The effects of pH, micelle concentration, buffer concentration, ionic strength, buffer salts, applied voltage and injection time were studied to select the optimum conditions for the determination of caffeine and its four analogues in drugs, foods and body fluids. Caffeine and its three analogues were resolved within 120 s with detection limits less than 1 μg/ml. Samples could be analyzed utilizing direct injection with satisfactory resolution and reproducibility.     

Quantitative metabolome analysis using capillary electrophoresis mass spectrometry

A new approach for the comprehensive and quantitative analysis of charged metabolites by capillary electrophoresis mass spectrometry (CE-MS) is proposed. Metabolites are first separated by CE based on charge and size and then selectively detected using MS by monitoring over a large range of m/z values. This method enabled the determination of 352 metabolic standards and its utility was demonstrated in the analysis of 1692 metabolites from Bacillus subtilis extracts, revealing significant changes in metabolites during B. subtilis sporulation.     

A comparison between MALDI-MS and CE-MS data for biomarker assessment in chronic kidney diseases

Non-invasive detection of diseases, based on urinary proteomics, is becoming an increasingly important area of research, especially in the area of chronic kidney disease (CKD). Different platforms have been used in independent studies, mostly capillary-electrophoresis coupled ESI-MS (CE-MS), liquid chromatography coupled mass spectrometry, and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry (MALDI-MS). We have compared the performance of CE-MS with MALDI-MS in detecting CKD, based on a cohort of 137 urine samples (62 cases and 75 controls). Data cross-talk between the two platforms was established for the comparison of detected biomarkers. The results demonstrate superior performance of the CE-MS approach in terms of peptide resolution and obtained disease prediction accuracy rates. However, the data also demonstrate the ability of the MALDI-MS approach to separate CKD patients from controls, at slightly reduced accuracy, but expected reduced cost and time. As a consequence, a practical approach can be foreseen where MALDI-MS is employed as an inexpensive, fast, and robust screening tool to detect probable CKD. In a second step, high resolution CE-MS could be used in those patients only that scored negative for CKD in the MALDI-MS analysis, reducing costs and time of such a program.     

Detection of diuretic agents in doping control

Since the inclusion of diuretics in the list of banned substances in sports in 1988, a large number of screening and confirmation procedures to detect the presence of these substances in urine samples have been developed. In this paper, a review of the analytcal methodology described to analyze diuretics is presented. The paper has been focused on the needs of doping control and mainly screening procedures including sample preparation and liquid or gas chromatographic separation have been considered. More relevant papers using capillary zone electrophoresis have been also considered. Mass spectrometry is mandatory in doping control for confirmation purposes, and finally, mass spectrometric techniques described for diuretics have been reviewed.     

Mass Spectrometry Based Methods for Analysis of Nucleosides as Antiviral Drugs and Potential Tumor Biomarkers

The intracellular analysis of the phosphorylated metabolites of some anti-HIV nucleosides by liquid chromatography or capillary electrophoresis coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS or CE-MS/MS) has been realized on human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC), with limit of quantitation (LOQ) that allow them to be quantitated intracellularly. We described also the analysis of modified urinary nucleosides as potential tumor biomarkers.