Tooth wear in captive wild ruminant species differs from that of free-ranging conspecifics

The mesowear method evaluates the wear patterns of herbivore cheek teeth by visually evaluating the facet development of the occlusal surfaces. It thus allows classification of most herbivorous ungulates into browsers, grazers or intermediate feeders, due to the fact that in grazers, tooth wear is characterized by a comparatively high degree of abrasion, most probably due to the presence of silicacious phytoliths in grasses, a higher amount of dust and grit adhering to their forage, or both. It has been suggested that excessive tooth wear could be a particularly limiting factor in the husbandry of captive large browsing species, and major tooth wear was demonstrated in captive as compared to free-ranging giraffe. If this increased tooth wear in captivity was an effect of feeding type and diets fed, then it would be expected that other browsing species are affected in a similar manner. In order to test this hypothesis, we investigated the dental mesowear pattern in captive individuals of 19 ruminant species and compared the results to data on free-ranging animals. Compared to free-ranging populations, captive browsers show a significantly more abrasion-dominated tooth wear signal. The reverse applies to captive grazers, which tend to show a less abrasion-dominated wear in captivity. Captive ruminants were generally more homogenous in their wear signature than free-ranging ruminants. If grit contamination in the natural habitat is a major cause of dental wear in grazers, then diets in captivity, although similar in botanical composition, most likely contain less abrasives due to feeding hygiene. If dental wear is one of the major factors limiting longevity, then captive grazers should achieve longer lifespans than both captive browsers and free-ranging grazers. In particular with respect to browsers, the results suggest that captive feeding regimes could be improved.     

Survey of parasite control programs used in captive wild ruminants

The purpose of this study was to document, through a mailed questionnaire survey, the methods of parasite control currently used in captive wild ruminants. There was a 69% overall response to the survey. The majority of respondents indicated that they used parasite surveillance and identification techniques similar to those used for domestic ruminants. Of the four major anthelmintic drug classes, the benzimidazoles and ivermectin were used most commonly. Many of the parasite control programs had high treatment frequencies which were similar to dosing frequencies reported to result in anthelmintic resistance in domestic animals. Lack of effectiveness by benzimidazoles was perceived to be a problem by many respondents.     

Bovine-like coronaviruses isolated from four species of captive wild ruminants are homologous to bovine coronaviruses, based on complete genomic sequences

We sequenced and analyzed the full-length genomes of four coronaviruses (CoVs), each from a distinct wild-ruminant species in Ohio: sambar deer (Cervus unicolor), a waterbuck (Kobus ellipsiprymnus), a sable antelope (Hippotragus niger), and a white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). The fecal samples from the sambar deer, the waterbuck, and the white-tailed deer were collected during winter dysentery outbreaks and sporadic diarrhea cases in 1993 and 1994 (H. Tsunemitsu, Z. R. el-Kanawati, D. R. Smith, H. H. Reed, and L. J. Saif, J. Clin. Microbiol. 33:3264-3269, 1995). A fecal sample from a sable antelope was collected in 2003 from an Ohio wild-animal habitat during the same outbreak when a bovine-like CoV from a giraffe (GiCoV) was isolated (M. Hasoksuz, K. Alekseev, A. Vlasova, X. Zhang, D. Spiro, R. Halpin, S. Wang, E. Ghedin, and L. J. Saif, J. Virol. 81:4981-4990, 2007). For two of the CoVs (sambar deer and waterbuck), complete genomes from both the cell culture-adapted and gnotobiotic-calf-passaged strains were also sequenced and analyzed. Phylogenetically, wild-ruminant CoVs belong to group 2a CoVs, with the closest relatedness to recent bovine CoV (BCoV) strains. High nucleotide identities (99.4 to 99.6%) among the wild-ruminant strains and recent BCoV strains (BCoV-LUN and BCoV-ENT, isolated in 1998) further confirm the close relatedness. Comparative genetic analysis of CoVs of captive wild ruminants with BCoV strains suggests that no specific genomic markers are present that allow discrimination between the bovine strains and bovine-like CoVs from captive wild ruminants; furthermore, no specific genetic markers were identified that defined cell cultured or calf-passaged strains or the host origin of strains. The results of this study confirm prior reports of biologic and antigenic similarities between bovine and wild-ruminant CoVs and suggest that cattle may be reservoirs for CoVs that infect captive wild ruminants or vice versa and that these CoVs may represent host range variants of an ancestral CoV.     

Modoc-like virus isolated from wild deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus) in Alberta

Small mammals were trapped in northeastern Alberta, Canada during 1976. Blood samples from these animals were tested for virus by inoculation of suckling mice. Blood clots from two deer mice yielded isolates of the same virus. The virus was related antigenically to a number of flaviviruses which have been isolated from mammals in Central America and North America and was related most closely to Modoc virus. Physical, chemical, and biological properties of the virus were similar also to those of Modoc virus. It did not produce illness or death in deer mice inoculated in the laboratory. Neutralization tests indicated that 1/38 (3%) red squirrels (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus), 3/35 (9%) least chipmunks (Eutamius minimus), 13/109 (12%) deer mice, and 3/50 (6%) humans were infected naturally. This is the first reported evidence of infection of red squirrels and chipmunks with a Modoc-like virus. These data extend the range of Modoc-like viruses northward by 1,500 km and comprise the first isolate from mammals in the boreal forest of Canada.     

A comparison of morphometry from captive and free-ranging Macaca mulatta

The paper addresses the effect of captivity on body size in Macaca mulatta, comparing a captive with the free-ranging population from which it was derived. The captive population, which was housed socially, was smaller in most linear measures and in body mass, particularly in young up to 13 month old animals. Nutritional differences in the diet may be at least partially responsible; the captive population was fed a lower level of total protein. Measurements for captive individuals < 24 hours to 36 months old are discussed in detail.     

Composition of adrenal lipids from some domestic and wild ruminants.

1. Lipids from the whole adrenal glands of the ox and the African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) were extracted and fractionated into neutral and phospholipids. Both species revealed the presence of considerable quantities of cholesterol but only very small quantities of cholesteryl esters. 2. Fatty acids from various fractions of bovine and buffalo adrenal glands were investigated by gas-chromatography. They showed a remarkably low content of higher unsaturated fatty acids and a very high content of stearic acid. 3. Mitochondrial and microsomal fractions were isolated from the adrenal glands of the impala antelope (Aepyceros melampus), their lipids extracted, analyzed and compared with the composition of the mitochondrial lipids from bovine adrenal glands. 4. Subcellular fractions of the bovine and impala adrenal glands contain only very small quantities of esterified cholesterol. Most of the lipid fractions were characterized by the absence of adrenic acid (C22:4 omega 6) and a low content of arachidonic acid.     

Cryptosporidium spp. in wild and captive reptiles

Between 1986 and 1988, 528 reptiles originating from three continents were examined for Cryptosporidium spp. Fifteen specimens representing eight genera and 11 species were infected. Statistical evaluation of oocyst structure suggests that multiple species of Cryptosporidium may exist among the reptiles examined.     

Bluetongue epidemiology in wild ruminants from Southern Spain

Serum samples from 210 wild ruminants collected between 2006 and 2007 in southern Spain were tested for antibodies against bluetongue virus (BTV) by means of a competitive ELISA assay. Eighty-seven of the 210 wild ruminants analysed (41%) showed antibodies against BTV. Statistically significant differences were found in the seroprevalence among species: 66% (65 of 98) for red deer (Cervus elaphus), 50% (ten of 20) for fallow deer (Dama dama), 33% (three of nine) for mouflon (Ovis aries musimon) and 11% (nine of 83) for Spanish ibex (Capra pyrenaica). Overall, the sites where seropositive wild ruminants were found coincide with the areas where BTV had been detected in livestock, but in eastern Sierra Morena, the virus circulated in wild ruminants, although it had not been detected in domestic ruminants in the same areas. Wild ruminants over 1-year of age (sub-adults and adults) had significantly higher seroprevalences than juvenile animals. Statistically significant differences were also observed between BTV seroprevalence and management (free-ranging vs. captivity) with higher prevalence in free-ranging animals. The high seroprevalences obtained suggest that BTV is widespread in wild ruminants in southern Spain. This factor could have an important influence on the evolution of the infection in domestic livestock and indicates the need to include wild ruminant species in BTV surveillance or control programs. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Differences in the range of faecal dry matter content between feeding types of captive wild ruminants

Mammal Research - The dry matter content of 245 faecal samples of 81 species of captive wild ruminants was investigated. Samples were taken from 10 different zoos from temperate climate during the...     

Heart rates in the captive, free-ranging beaver

1. Heart rates of beaver (Castor canadensis) under free-ranging captive conditions for active behaviors and resting in water (approximately 121 beats/min) were significantly (P less than 0.01) higher than for resting on land (100 beats/min). 2. Although no transient recovery tachycardia was evident in swimming heart rates following diving, average swimming heart rates were higher (127 beats/min) after diving than after other precursor behaviors (123 beats/min). 3. Beaver exhibited bradycardia when sleeping (75 beats/min), diving (61 beats/min), and when threatened on land (57 beats/min). 4. The respiratory sinus arrhythmia indicated a respiratory rate of 15 breaths/min. 5. Cold temperatures (approximately 0 degree C) elicited higher heart rates than did warmer temperatures (approximately 20 degrees C) in active, non-diving behaviors (P less than 0.05).     

Reproductive seasonality in captive wild ruminants: implications for biogeographical adaptation,photoperiodic control,and life history

Many ruminant species show seasonal patterns of reproduction. Causes for this are widely debated, and include adaptations to seasonal availability of resources (with cues either from body condition in more tropical, or from photoperiodism in higher latitude habitats) and/or defence strategies against predators. Conclusions so far are limited to datasets with less than 30 species. Here, we use a dataset on 110 wild ruminant species kept in captivity in temperate‐zone zoos to describe their reproductive patterns quantitatively [determining the birth peak breadth (BPB) as the number of days in which 80% of all births occur]; then we link this pattern to various biological characteristics [latitude of origin, mother‐young‐relationship (hider/follower), proportion of grass in the natural diet (grazer/browser), sexual size dimorphism/mating system], and compare it with reports for free‐ranging animals. When comparing taxonomic subgroups, variance in BPB is highly correlated to the minimum, but not the maximum BPB, suggesting that a high BPB (i.e. an aseasonal reproductive pattern) is the plesiomorphic character in ruminants. Globally, latitude of natural origin is highly correlated to the BPB observed in captivity, supporting an overruling impact of photoperiodism on ruminant reproduction. Feeding type has no additional influence; the hider/follower dichotomy, associated with the anti‐predator strategy of ‘swamping’, has additional influence in the subset of African species only. Sexual size dimorphism and mating system are marginally associated with the BPB, potentially indicating a facilitation of polygamy under seasonal conditions. The difference in the calculated Julian date of conception between captive populations and that reported for free‐ranging ones corresponds to the one expected if absolute day length was the main trigger in highly seasonal species: calculated day length at the time of conception between free‐ranging and captive populations followed a y = x relationship. Only 11 species (all originating from lower latitudes) were considered to change their reproductive pattern distinctively between the wild and captivity, with 10 becoming less seasonal (but not aseasonal) in human care, indicating that seasonality observed in the wild was partly resource‐associated. Only one species (Antidorcas marsupialis) became more seasonal in captivity, presumably because resource availability in the wild overrules the innate photoperiodic response. Reproductive seasonality explains additional variance in the body mass–gestation period relationship, with more seasonal species having shorter gestation periods for their body size. We conclude that photoperiodism, and in particular absolute day length, are genetically fixed triggers for reproduction that may be malleable to some extent by body condition, and that plasticity in gestation length is an important facilitator that may partly explain the success of ruminant radiation to high latitudes. Evidence for an anti‐predator strategy involving seasonal reproduction is limited to African species. Reproductive seasonality following rainfall patterns may not be an adaptation to give birth in periods of high resource availability but an adaptation to allow conception only at times of good body condition.     

Reproductive biology of captive and free-ranging spider monkeys

Records from 42 zoos and from long-term studies of wild populations were analysed to describe the reproductive biology of spider monkeys (Ateles spp.). Both data sets suggested that spider monkey females typically have their first infant between 7 and 8 years of age with an interbirth interval of approximately 32–36 months. Infant sex ratio for zoo populations was approximately 1 male to 1 female; infant sex ratios from wild populations were variable. Zoo records provided adequate sample size to suggest that interbirth interval was not influenced by the sex of the infant produced, and that the sex ratio and the probability of infant survival did not change with the number of infants the mother had produced. The findings of this study have implications with respect to the conservation of New World primate species. Since spider monkeys take a long time to reach sexual maturity and their interbirth interval is longer than that expected based on their body size, their populations may be slow to recover following disturbances. Thus, particular care should be taken for the protection of these species.     

Cryptosporidial infections in captive wild animals

Neonatal diarrhea was an important cause of morbidity and mortality in a hand-rearing facility for exotic ruminants at the San Diego Wild Animal Park. Studies undertaken to determine the causes of the problem revealed that oocysts of Cryptosporidium sp. were demonstrable in auramine O stained fecal smears from 52 of 183 (28.4%) animals examined. Cryptosporidial infection was identified in 21 of 40 species of exotic ruminants with diarrhea. In addition, cryptosporidia were associated with gastroenteric disease in two primates and two reptiles. It was observed also that auramine O stained coccidial oocysts of the genus Eimeria, which were present in five of 183 (2.7%) of the specimens examined.     

Mortality of wild and captive chimpanzees

Mortality of chimpanzees in the wild (Gombe National Park) and in captivity (Taronga Zoo, Sydney and Melbourne Zoo) was compared using standard cohort life table techniques. Overall mortality probabilities up to age 30 were compared using a logrank test. No significant difference in overall mortality was revealed, and the mortality curves did appear to be surprisingly similar, but there were nevertheless some differences in the distribution of mortality. Perinatal mortality was higher in the zoo, while post-perinatal and infant mortality were higher in the wild. Survivorship in the older zoo animals (over age 27) was better than the wild. These differences were attributed to the more sheltered zoo environment, including the availability of veterinary care, which could be expected to improve survival in infants and older adults. The higher perinatal mortality experienced by zoo infants could be reflecting higher levels of inbreeding among the zoo animals.