Effects of Metabolism and Physiology on the Production of Okenone and Bacteriochlorophyll a in Purple Sulfur Bacteria

Purple sulfur bacteria (PSB) are important photoautotrophs inhabiting chemoclines in euxinic and meromictic lakes. These organisms are the only producers of the carotenoid, okenone, a compound that has been targeted as a biomarker for photic zone euxinia, particularly in ancient sedimentary environments. Although the natural occurrence and geochemistry of this compound has been studied previously, this is the first systematic and comprehensive report on the microbial physiology of okenone production in pure cultures. Four strains/species: Marichromatium purpuratum DSMZ 1591, Marichromatium purpuratum DSMZ 1711, Thiocapsa marina DSMZ 5653, and FGL21 (isolated from Fayetteville Green Lake, New York) were chosen because they produce okenone and Bacteriochlorophyll a (Bchl a). We developed a new, in vivo technique for the quantification of okenone allowing for more rapid and accurate quantification. The ratio of okenone to Bchl a differs among species and strains of PSB, varying from 0.463 ± 0.002 to 0.864 ± 0.002. Photoheterotrophically grown PSB have statistically significant, lowered okenone:Bchl a ratios, decreasing from 0.784 ± 0.009 under autotrophic metabolism to 0.681 ± 0.002, which we interpret to indicate a decreased requirement for okenone when PSB are provided with a complex (> C1) carbon source. The variation in okenone production raises the question on whether okenone expression is constitutive or inducible. The broader implication is that concentrations of okenone in sediments are dependent on metabolism and species composition, and not solely on PSB cell density.     

Analysis of Carotenoid Composition in Petals of Calendula (Calendula officinalis L.)

Nineteen carotenoids were identified in extracts of petals of orange- and yellow-flowered cultivars of calendula (Calendula officinalis L.). Ten carotenoids were unique to orange-flowered cultivars. The UV–vis absorption maxima of these ten carotenoids were at longer wavelengths than that of flavoxanthin, the main carotenoid of calendula petals, and it is clear that these carotenoids are responsible for the orange color of the petals. Six carotenoids had a cis structure at C-5 (C-5′), and it is conceivable that these (5Z)-carotenoids are enzymatically isomerized at C-5 in a pathway that diverges from the main carotenoid biosynthesis pathway. Among them, (5Z,9Z)-lycopene (1), (5Z,9Z,5′Z,9′Z)-lycopene (3), (5′Z)-γ-carotene (4), and (5′Z,9′Z)-rubixanthin (5) has never before been identified. Additionally, (5Z,9Z,5′Z)-lycopene (2) has been reported only as a synthesized compound.     

Pigment production and isotopic fractionations in continuous culture: okenone producing purple sulfur bacteria Part II

Okenone is a carotenoid pigment unique to certain members of Chromatiaceae, the dominant family of purple sulfur bacteria (PSB) found in euxinic photic zones. Diagenetic alteration of okenone produces okenane, the only recognized molecular fossil unique to PSB. The in vivo concentrations of okenone and bacteriochlorophyll a (Bchl a) on a per cell basis were monitored and quantified as a function of light intensity in continuous cultures of the purple sulfur bacterium Marichromatium purpuratum (Mpurp1591). We show that okenone‐producing PSB have constant bacteriochlorophyll to carotenoid ratios in light‐harvesting antenna complexes. The in vivo concentrations of Bchl a, 0.151 ± 0.012 fmol cell^?1, and okenone, 0.103 ± 0.012 fmol cell^?1, were not dependent on average light intensity (10–225 Lux) at both steady and non‐steady states. This observation revealed that in autotrophic continuous cultures of Mpurp1591, there was a constant ratio for okenone to Bchl a of 1:1.5. Okenone was therefore constitutively produced in planktonic cultures of PSB, regardless of light intensity. This confirms the legitimacy of okenone as a signature for autotrophic planktonic PSB and by extrapolation water column euxinia. We measured the δ¹³C, δ¹⁵N, and δ³⁴S bulk biomass values from cells collected daily and determined the isotopic fractionations of Mpurp1591. There was no statistical relationship in the bulk isotope measurements or stable isotope fractionations to light intensity or cell density under steady and non‐steady‐state conditions. The carbon isotope fractionation between okenone and Bchl a with respect to overall bulk biomass (¹³ε_{pigment – biomass}) was 2.2 ± 0.4‰ and ?4.1 ± 0.9‰, respectively. The carbon isotopic fractionation () for the production of pigments in PSB is more variable than previously thought with our reported values for okenone at ?15.5 ± 1.2‰ and ?21.8 ± 1.7‰ for Bchl a.     

Reconstitution of Okenone into Light Harvesting Complexes from <Emphasis Type="Italic">Allochromatium minutissimum</Emphasis>

Okenone was reconstituted into light harvesting (LH) complexes of the purple photosynthetic bacterium Allochromatium minutissimum possessing the spirilloxanthin pathway for carotenoid biosynthesis. Suppression of this pathway by diphenylamine, an inhibitor of carotenogenesis, yielded nearly carotenoidless complexes preserving their native spectral properties. Using a previously developed technique, okenone was readily reconstituted into LH1 complex (>90%) whereas its reconstitution into LH2 complex was of low efficacy (10-20%). The absorption band of the reconstituted okenone was shifted to shorter wavelength compared with its position in vivo. This is typical for other reconstituted carotenoids. The reconstitution of okenone was confirmed by Li-DS electrophoresis (in contrast to free okenone the reconstituted okenone migrated with complexes), circular dichroism spectra (reconstituted okenone exhibited optical activity), and fluorescence excitation spectrum (energy transfer from okenone to bacteriochlorophyll was at the control level).     

Reaction of Astaxanthin with Peroxynitrite

The in vitro reactivities of astaxanthin toward peroxynitrite were investigated and the reaction products after scavenging with peroxynitrite were analyzed in order to determine the complete mechanism of this reaction. A series of carotenoids, 13-apo-astaxanthinone (1), 12′-apo-15′-nitroastaxanthinal (2), 12′-apo-astaxanthinal (3), 10′-apo-astaxanthinal (4), 9-cis-14′-s-cis-15′-nitroastaxanthin (5), 14′-s-cis-15′-nitroastaxanthin (6), 13-cis-14′-s-cis-15′-nitroastaxanthin (7), 10′-s-cis-11′-cis-11′-nitroastaxanthin (8), 13,15,13′-tri-cis-15′-nitroastaxanthin (9), 9-cis-astaxanthin (10), and 13-cis-astaxanthin (11), were isolated from the reaction products of carotenoids with peroxynitrite. Our previous studies achieved for the first time the isolation of nitro derivatives from the reaction of astaxanthin with peroxynitrite. Here we identify the major remaining reaction products of this reaction and investigate the stabilities of the nitro astaxanthins.     

Carotenoids of thiorhodaceae

Summary The carotenoid composition of 25 pure isolates of Thiorhodaceae has been studied. The 17 carotenoids encountered can, on the basis of chemical and biochemical considerations, be grouped into the spirilloxanthin, okenone and warmingone series. Most of the isolates examined synthesize carotenoids belonging to one of these groups only—the so-called normal spirilloxanthin series being the most common.The distribution pattern of carotenoids in phototrophic bacteria in general is briefly discussed, and the implications of the carotenoid composition in the taxonomy of the sulphur purple bacteria are evaluated.

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Zusammenfassung Die Carotinoid-Zusammensetzung von 25 Thiorhodaceae-Stämmen wurde untersucht. Aus chemischen und biochemischen Gründen können die 17 aufgefundenen Carotinoide in die Spirilloxanthin-, Okenon- und Warmingon-Reihen zusammengefaßt werden. Die meisten der untersuchten Stämme bilden Carotinoide, die nur zu einer dieser Gruppen gehören, von denen die sogenannte normale Spirilloxanthin-Reihe am häufigsten vorkommt. Das Verteilungsmuster der Carotinoide bei phototrophen Bakterien wird kurz dargestellt und der Wert der Carotinoid-Zusammensetzung für die Taxonomie der Schwefel-Purpurbakterien diskutiert.

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No. III of this series Arch. Mikrobiol. 46, 138 (1963).     

Isolation of a Novel Carotenoid,OH-chlorobactene Glucoside Hexadecanoate,and Related Rare Carotenoids from Rhodococcus sp. CIP and Their Antioxidative Activities

In the course of screening for antioxidative carotenoids from bacteria, we isolated and identified a novel carotenoid, OH-chlorobactene glucoside hexadecanoate (4), and rare carotenoids, OH-chlorobactene glucoside (1), OH-γ-carotene glucoside (2) and OH-4-keto-γ-carotene glucoside hexadecanoate (3) from Rhodococcus sp. CIP. The singlet oxygen (¹O₂) quenching model of these carotenoids showed potent antioxidative activities IC₅₀ 14.6 μM for OH-chlorobactene glucoside hexadecanoate (4), 6.5 μM for OH-chlorobactene glucoside (1), 9.9 μM for OH-γ-carotene glucoside (2) and 7.3 μM for OH-4-keto-γ-carotene glucoside hexadecanoate (3).     

Stratigraphy of specific algal and bacterial carotenoids in the sediments of Lake Varese (N. Italy)

A study on the succession of some phytoplankton populations in the very eutrophic Lake Varese over the past 80–100 years, was based on thin-layer chromatography of four group-specific carotenoids (echinenone, lutein, myxoxanthophyll and oscillaxanthin). The development of diatoms was traced by microscope counts of their frustules. In addition, the carotenoid okenone, peculiar to some Chromatium species, was identified and related to lake trophic conditions (the Chromatium species are obligate anaerobic bacteria, and use H₂S).     

Elucidation of the biosynthetic pathway for Okenone in Thiodictyon sp. CAD16 leads to the discovery of two novel carotene ketolases

Okenone is a unique ketocarotenoid found in many purple sulfur bacteria; it is important because of its unique light absorption and photoprotection properties. Okenane, a compound formed by diagenetic reduction of okenone, is an important biomarker in geochemical analyses of sedimentary rocks. Despite its ecological and biogeochemical importance, the biochemical pathway for okenone synthesis has not yet been fully described. The genome sequence of an okenone-producing organism, Thiodictyon sp. strain CAD16, revealed four genes whose predicted proteins had strong sequence similarity to enzymes known to produce ψ-end group modifications of carotenoids in proteobacteria. These four genes encoded homologs of a 1,2-carotenoid hydratase (CrtC), an O-methyltransferase (CrtF), and two paralogs of carotenoid 3,4-desaturases (CrtD). Expression studies in lycopene- or neurosporene-producing strains of Escherichia coli confirmed the functions of crtC and crtF, but the crtD paralogs encoded enzymes with previously undescribed functions. One enzyme, CruS, was only distantly related to CrtD desaturases, was bifunctional, and performed a 3,4-desaturation and introduced a C-2 keto group into neurosporene derivatives in the presence of dioxygen. The enzyme encoded by the other crtD paralog also represents a new enzyme in carotenogenesis and was named cruO. CruO encodes the C-4/4' ketolase uniquely required for okenone biosynthesis. The identification of CruO and the demonstration of its biochemical activity complete the elucidation of the biosynthetic pathway for okenone and other related ketocarotenoids.     

Metabolic engineering for synthesis of aryl carotenoids in Rhodococcus

Rhodococcus erythropolis naturally synthesizes monocyclic carotenoids: 4-keto-γ-carotene and γ-carotene. The genes and the pathway for carotenoid synthesis in R. erythropolis were previously described. We heterologously expressed a β-carotene desaturase gene (crtU) from Brevibacterium in Rhodococcus to produce aryl carotenoids such as chlorobactene. Expression of the crtU downstream of a chloramphenicol resistance gene on pRhBR171 vector showed higher activity than expression downstream of a native 1-deoxyxylulose-5-phosphate synthase gene (dxs) on pDA71 vector. Expression of the crtU in the β-carotene ketolase (crtO) knockout Rhodococcus host produced higher purity chlorobactene than expression in the wild-type Rhodococcus host. Growth of the engineered Rhodococcus strain in eight different media showed that nutrient broth yeast extract medium supplemented with fructose gave the highest total yield of chlorobactene. This medium was used for growing the engineered Rhodococcus strain in a 10-l fermentor, and ∼18 mg of chlorobactene was produced as the almost exclusive carotenoid by fermentation.     

Biosynthesis of the biomarker okenone: χ-ring formation

Purple sulfur bacteria (PSB) mainly occur in anoxic aquatic and benthic environments, where they play important roles in cycling carbon and sulfur. Many PSB characteristically produce the unique keto-carotenoid, okenone, which is important not only for its light absorption and photoprotection properties but also because of its diagenesis product, okenane, which is a biomarker for ancient sediments derived from anoxic environments. The specific methylation pattern of the χ-ring of okenane is unlikely to be formed by diagenetic processes and should therefore reflect an enzymatic activity from okenone biosynthesis. This study describes two enzymes that produce the χ-ring of okenone, the only structural element of okenone preserved in okenane. Genes encoding enzymes of carotenogenesis were identified in the draft genome sequence of an okenone-producing PSB, Thiodictyon sp. strain CAD16. Two divergently transcribed genes encoded a CrtY-type lycopene cyclase and a CrtU/CruE-type γ-carotene desaturase/methyltransferase. Expression of crtY in Escherichia coli showed that this gene encoded a lycopene cyclase that produced γ-carotene as the only product. Although the sequence of the γ-carotene desaturase/methyltransferase was more similar to CrtU sequences of green sulfur bacteria than to CruE sequences of cyanobacteria, expression of the crtU gene in Chlorobaculum tepidum showed that the enzyme produced carotenoids with χ-rings rather than φ-rings. Phylogenetic analysis of the carotene desaturase/methyltransferases revealed that enzymes capable of converting β-rings to χ-rings have independently evolved at least two times. These results indicate that it probably will not be possible to deduce the activity of carotene desaturase/methyltransferases solely from sequence data.     

猫爪草中的脂肪酸类化合物

为了解小毛茛(Ranunculus ternatus Thunb.)的化学成分,采用色谱技术从其干燥块根猫爪草中分离纯化得到5个脂肪酸类化合物,经波谱分析,他们的结构分别鉴定为(R)-3-hydroxy-11-methoxy-11-oxoundecanoic acid(1)、十六烷酸(2)、棕榈酸乙酯(3)、已二酸(4)和硬脂酸(5)。其中,化合物1为新化合物,这些成分对耐药结核分枝杆菌(耐INH+RFP)有一定的体外抑制活性。     

稀有放线菌Lechevalieria rhizosphaerae NEAU-A2的次级代谢产物研究及遗传操作系统的建立

【背景】菌株Lechevalieria rhizosphaerae NEAU-A2是一株新的稀有放线菌,其基因组中包含多个与次级代谢产物生物合成相关的基因簇,具有产生丰富代谢产物的潜力。【目的】对稀有放线菌L. rhizosphaerae NEAU-A2的次级代谢产物进行研究,以期发现结构新颖或生物活性独特的化合物,并建立其遗传操作系统。【方法】应用硅胶柱色谱和高效液相色谱等方法对菌株NEAU-A2的次级代谢产物进行分离和纯化,整合质谱分析、核磁共振等方法进行结构解析。在对该菌株全基因组测序的基础上,以基因组序列中编码杂合的聚酮合酶-非核糖体肽合成酶(PolyketideSynthase-Nonribosomal Peptide Synthetase,PKS-NRPSs)基因1609为目标基因,利用PCR-Targeting介导的基因置换技术构建重组质粒,通过接合转移的方式导入野生菌株。【结果】从菌株NEAU-A2中分离鉴定了2个新的吲哚二聚化合物(1,2)和5个已知化合物N-乙酰色胺(3)、4-((2-(1H-Indol-3-Yl)Ethyl)Amino)-4-Oxobutanoic Acid (4)、Brevianamide F (5)、4S,7R-Germacra-1(10)E,5E-Diene-11-Ol (6)、1H-吡咯-2-羧酸(7)。接合子通过培养2代即可获得双交换突变菌株,PCR分析结果显示PKS-NRPS基因被成功中断。【结论】从稀有放线菌L. rhizosphaerae NEAU-A2中分离鉴定出7个化合物,并成功建立了该菌的遗传操作系统。     

链霉菌CB02959中四霉素及四烯菌素的鉴定及培养基优化

【背景】四霉素(Tetramycin)和四烯菌素(Tetrin)是具有广谱抗真菌活性的四烯大环内酯类抗生素。链霉菌CB02959是一株雷纳霉素(Leinamycin)类化合物的潜在产生菌株,利用antiSMASH分析其基因组发现该菌株含有一个纳他霉素(Natamycin)类四烯大环内酯化合物的生物合成基因簇。【目的】对Streptomyces sp. CB02959中次级代谢产物进行研究,确定其是否可以产生四烯大环内酯化合物,对其发酵产物进行分离和结构鉴定,并进行初步的发酵优化以提高产量。【方法】基于生物信息学预测和高分辨质谱数据,推测CB02959中多烯化合物的结构;在不同发酵培养基中培养CB02959,确定适合大规模发酵的培养基;敲除tetrA基因以确定目标基因簇和四烯大环内酯化合物产生的相关性;分离和鉴定CB02959产生的主要代谢物的结构;通过改变培养基中葡萄糖、麦芽提取物和胰蛋白胨的含量,提高四烯大环内酯化合物的产量。【结果】通过对CB02959中纳他霉素类化合物生物合成基因簇的分析及16S rRNA基因序列的进化树分析,推测CB02959可能是一株新的四霉素和四烯菌素产生菌;在YEME发酵培养基中对CB02959进行大规模发酵,分离得到4个化合物,鉴定为四霉素A (1)、四霉素B (2)、四烯菌素A (3)、四烯菌素B (4);最后通过培养基的初步优化,将化合物1–4的产量分别提高至208.1、100.0、1 315.6、109.9 mg/L。【结论】通过基因组挖掘策略发现了一株新的四霉素和四烯菌素产生菌链霉菌CB02959,并通过培养基优化提升了其四烯大环内酯化合物的产量,此发现为这类抗真菌天然产物的后续开发奠定了基础。     

IMPROVED DETECTION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF FUCOXANTHIN‐TYPE CAROTENOIDS: NOVEL PIGMENTS IN EMILIANIA HUXLEYI (PRYMNESIOPHYCEAE)1

A new atmospheric pressure chemical ionization mass spectrometry (APCI‐LC/MS) method improved detection and aided characterization of fucoxanthin related carotenoids, revealing the coccolithophorid Emiliania huxleyi (Lohm.) Hay et Mohler (strain MBA 92, Plymouth) to contain a wider range of acyloxyfucoxanthins than reported previously. The diversity is confirmed as arising from differences in the length of the alkanoic acid substituent esterified at position C‐19′. Acyloxyfucoxanthins with substituents of between four and eight carbons at the C‐19′ position have been detected in a culture of Emiliania huxleyi, where previously only 19′‐butanoyloxyfucoxanthin and 19′‐hexanoyloxyfucoxanthin have been reported in the literature. Novel fucoxanthinol derivatives were also found. The detection of these novel carotenoids in Emiliania huxleyi permits detailed studies of the impact of environmental factors on individual components of the complex pool of fucoxanthin‐type carotenoids in this organism.     

Novel Mycelial Components,Ganoderic Acid Mg,Mh, Mi,Mj and Mk,from the Fungus Ganoderma lucidum

Five novel C₃₀ triterpenoids, ganoderic acids Mg (10), Mh (11), Mi (12), Mj (13) and Mk (14), were isolated from the mycelial mat of a G. lucidum strain, which produces C₂₇ lucidenic acids in the fruiting body. Their structures were determined by spectroscopic analysis and chemical conversion.     

一株海洋真菌Aspergillus jensenii LW128的次级代谢产物及其抗菌活性研究

【目的】研究一株西北太平洋深海沉积物来源真菌Aspergillus jensenii LW128的次级代谢产物及其抗菌活性。【方法】利用硅胶柱色谱(silica gel column chromatography)、凝胶柱色谱(Sephadex LH-20 column chromatography)和反相高效液相色谱(reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography, RP-HPLC)等方法对菌株的发酵粗提物进行分离纯化得到单体化合物;将核磁共振波谱(nuclear magnetic resonance, NMR)、质谱(mass spectrometry, MS)数据与相关文献报道数据进行比对后确定化合物结构;采用肉汤微量稀释法测定化合物的抗菌活性。【结果】从海洋真菌Aspergillus jensenii LW128中分离并鉴定了10个已知化合物,分别为diorcinol D(1)、diorcinol K(2)、diorcinol I(3)、(+)-(7S)-7-O-methylsydonic acid (4)、(+)-s...     

Carotenoid production in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Bacillus subtilis</Emphasis> achieved by metabolic engineering

The carotenoid synthetic genes, crtM and crtN, derived from Staphylococcus aureus, were introduced into B. subtilis, resulting in yellow pigmentation. Absorption maxima of pigments and MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry demonstrated that the pigmented strain accumulated two C₃₀ carotenoids, 4,4′-diapolycopene and 4,4′-diaponeurosporene. A survival test using H₂O₂ revealed that the pigmented strain was more resistant to oxidative stress than the strain harboring an empty-vector. These findings indicate that B. subtilis can produce carotenoids, and the strain accumulating the carotenoids, CarotenoBacillus, will become a basal host for production of C₃₀ carotenoids and evaluation of their antioxidative effects.     

A Simple Total Synthesis of (±)-(δ-Cadinene

This paper reports on a total synthesis of racemic δ-cadinene (2), which had been obtained previously in optically active form by acid-catalyzed cyclization of (–)-germacrene D. The Robinson annelation using cyclohexenone enamine (12) proceeded stereoselectively to form δ-cadinenone (3), whose oxygen was removed by the thioketal–Raney Ni method to produce δ-cadinene.