Phylogeography of the bushmaster (Lachesis tnuta: Viperidae): implications for neotropical biogeography, systematics, and conservation

We used mitochondrial gene sequences to reconstruct phylogenetic relationships among subspecies of the bushmaster, Lachesis muta. These large vipers are widely distributed in lowland tropical forests in Central and South America, where three of four allopatric subspecies are separated by montane barriers. Our phylogeny indicates that the four subspecies belong to two clades, the Central American and South American lineages. We use published molecular studies of other taxa to estimate a 'reptilian mtDNA rate' and thus temporal boundaries for major lineage divergences in Lachesis. We estimate that the Central and South American forms diverged 18-6 Mya, perhaps due to the uplifting of the Andes, whereas the two Central American subspecies may have diverged 11-4 Mya with the uprising of the Cordillera de Talamanca that separates them today. South American bushmasters from the Amazon Basin and the Atlantic Forest are not strongly differentiated, perhaps due to episodic gene flow during the Pleistocene, when suitable habitat for this species was at times more continuous. Our results agree with previous evidence that genetic divergence among some neotropical vertebrates pre-dated Pleistocene forest fragmentation cycles and the appearance of the Panamanian Isthmus. Based on morphological, behavioral, and molecular evidence, we recognize three species of Lachesis. In addition to L. muta, the widespread South American form, the Central American forms are treated as distinct species (L. meknocephak and L. stenophrys), each deserving of special conservation status due to restricted distribution and habitat destruction.     

The damselfishes (Pisces: Osteichthyes: Pomacentridae) of Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore: systematics,ecology and conservation

Damselfishes (Pomacentridae) are among the most common of reef fishes in tropical seas, comprising 320 species in all, with 268 species alone in the Indo-West Pacific regions. 15 genera (Abudefduf, Amblyglyphidodon, Amphiprion, Chelioprion, Chromis, Chrysiptera, Dascyllus, Pristotis, Dischistodus, Hemiglyphidodon, Neoglyphidodon, Neopomacentrus, Plectroglyphidodon, Pomacentrus, Stegastes) and at least 39 species inhabit the waters of Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore. They are important ecologically because many species are extremely abundant in reefs, and also economically, as several are collected in large numbers for the lucrative aquarium trade. This demand has led to some fishermen using destructive methods in obtaining the fishes, to the point that original standing populations may not be recoverable. This threat poses a need for conservation of the reefs. The present study based primarily on fishes collected from the waters of Singapore and specimens from the Zoological Reference Collection at the National University of Singapore, will serve the dual purpose of establishing a current species list for Malaysia and Singapore, and to update and clarify the local taxonomy of the group. An annotated list (with localities) is provided of the known or reported species to aid studies on reefs.     

Fire as a Recurrent Event in Tropical Forests of the Eastern Amazon: Effects on Forest Structure,Biomass, and Species Composition1

The effects of fire on forest structure and composition were studied in a severely fire-impacted landscape in the eastern Amazon. Extensive sampling of area forests was used to compare structure and compositional differences between burned and unburned forest stands. Burned forests were extremely heterogeneous, with substantial variation in forest structure and fire damage recorded over distances of <50 m. Unburned forest patches occurred within burned areas, but accounted for only six percent of the sample area. Canopy cover, living biomass, and living adult stem densities decreased with increasing fire inrensiry / frequency, and were as low as 10–30 percent of unburned forest values. Even light burns removed >70 percent of the sapling and vine populations. Pioneer abundance increased dramatically with burn intensity, with pioneers dominating the understory in severely damaged areas. Species richness was inversely related to burn severity, but no clear pattern of species selection was observed. Fire appears to be a cyclical event in the study region: <30 percent of the burned forest sample had been subjected to only one burn. Based on estimated solar radiation intensities, burning substantially increases fire susceptibility of forests. At least 50 percent of the total area of all burned forests is predicted to become flammable within 16 rainless days, as opposed to only 4 percent of the unburned forest. In heavily burned forest subjected to recurrent fires, 95 percent of the area is predicted to become flammable in <9 rain-free days. As a recurrent disturbance phenomenon, fire shows unparalleled potential to impoverish and alter the forests of the eastern Amazon.     

Habitat use,density, and conservation status of the white-browed guan (Penelope jacucaca Spix, 1825)

The white-browed guan (Cracidae: Penelope jacucaca) is an endemic bird species to the Caatinga, the largest centre of dry forest in South America. This taxon was considered Vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) due to continued habitat loss within its distribution and intense hunting pressure that contributed to population declines. However, information on population aspects and habitat use by P. jacucaca, which is fundamental for monitoring its conservation status, is not available. We studied habitat use (analysed in a Generalized Linear Model) and population density (estimated by distance sampling) in a specific area in Northeast Brazil. Using species distribution modelling (SDM), forest cover loss data (performed in the MaxEnt program) and quantitative information about hunting, more rigorous estimates of the distribution limits, available habitat, and population declines of P. jacucaca were generated. Based on the IUCN criteria, we applied analysed data to reassess the conservation status of the white-browed guan. Local density was estimated at 13.1 individuals/km² and the estimated number of individuals removed per year due to hunting was 121.7 in the forest cover area (110.46 km²) of the Serra de Santa Catarina. Consequently, the annual removal rate of hunted individuals in the study area corresponds to approximately 11% of the population. The habitat use analysis pointed to a strong positive association with seasonally dry deciduous forest (SDDF) vegetation and with arboreal vegetation. The SDM indicated a potential distribution (climatically favourable) area of 675,823 km², and forest cover and loss calculations indicated a total of 81,307 km² of available suitable habitat in 2013. Therefore, comparing these results to the IUCN criteria, we recommend that P. jacucaca remain in the Vulnerable category.     

Environmental indicator potential of the dominant litter decomposer,Talitriator africana (Crustacea,Amphipoda) in Afrotemperate forests

Abstract Environmental disturbance and condition are complex concepts to define and measure in forested landscapes. The highly fragmented Afrotemperate forests in South Africa are under increasing pressure from the agricultural matrix and resource harvesting. Rapid assessment of forest condition and disturbance would aid their conservation management. The terrestrial amphipod, Talitriator africana, dominates the decomposer guild of Afrotemperate forests and has been previously identified as a potential indicator of forest condition. Using four published studies, we further evaluate this species' suitability as an environmental indicator of forest disturbance and condition. Amphipods were consistently more abundant at highly disturbed forest edges compared to less disturbed interiors, and less abundant in deep litter compared to shallow litter. High amphipod numbers in shallow litter was correlated with low predator abundance. Shallow litter may in turn be caused by more efficient breakdown of litter by amphipods at forest edges. Numbers varied considerably between sites and years, but showed a consistent trend of high abundance with increasing forest disturbance. The latter, and the ease with which it can be surveyed and identified, make a compelling case for the use of T. africana as a single‐species environmental indicator of forest disturbance. However, relatively broad tolerances and the difficulty of calibrating the abundance‐disturbance relationship over a wide region limits the indicator value of this species to the local landscape, where disturbance effects vary only in their intensity (as opposed to type) across forests.     

分子生态学研究与运行多样性保护

分子生态学的发展揭开了生物多样性保护研究的新篇章,分子技术的应用克服了传统生态学法中的一些难题,如野外调查周期长,分辨率有限,实验条件不易控制等,应用各种分子标记（如：RFLP,VNTR,RAPD,DNA测序等）可以分析种群地理格局和异质种群动态,确定种群间的基因流,研究瓶颈效应对种群的影响以及确定个体间的亲缘关系等等,所有这些研究都是指导物种保护和淑危种群的恢复所必要的,种或品系特异性的分子标记技术能够解决形态分类中的模糊现象,确定基于遗传物质的谱系关系,还可以用来分析近缘种间杂交问题,这些问题的解决有助于确定物种优先保护顺序,选择保护地工,近年来引起重视的主要组织人性复合体（MHC）NDA异分析可能会在研究种群对疾病的易感性第一系列种群特异性问题方面非常有用,随着分子技术的不断发展,会有更多的保护生物学问题得到解决,尤其是结合野外调查统计数据应用多个分子标记对目标种群进行研究,所得到的结果会更精确,更有说服力。     

Fire as a dimension of historical ecology: a response to Bowman et al. (2011)

Bowman et al. (Journal of Biogeography, 2011, 38 , 2223–2236) attempt a synthesis of the current status of study into human use of fire as an ecosystem management tool and provide a framework for guiding research on the human dimensions of global fire. While we applaud this ambitious effort, we believe the proposed ‘pyric phase and transition’ model to be too deterministic and simplistic to account for the complexity and diversity in human–fire relationships. After reviewing theoretical problems with the proposed framework, we question policy implications of their conclusions concerning tropical forest systems. We suggest that a theoretically informed perspective should build on an historical fire ecology framework for investigating social and ecological aspects of human–environment interactions.     

Evolutionary systematics of the Australian Eocyzicus fauna (Crustacea: Branchiopoda: Spinicaudata) reveals hidden diversity and phylogeographic structure

Although ‘large branchiopods’ are an important faunal element of the temporary water bodies in Australia's vast (semi)arid regions, knowledge of their diversity, distribution and ecology is still poor. Here, on the basis of one mitochondrial [cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI)] and three nuclear (EF1α, ITS2 and 28S) markers, we present new data relating to the diversity and phylogeography of eastern and central Australian Eocyzicus (Spinicaudata) fauna. Using a combination of phylogenetic, haplotype network and DNA barcoding analyses of COI, 312 individuals were grouped into eleven main lineages. To infer whether these lineages are reproductively isolated from each other (the prerequisite for species delineation according to the Biological or Hennigian Species Concepts), separate analyses of each nuclear marker were performed on a subset of specimens. Although some lineages are non‐monophyletic in the analysis of one nuclear marker, this is mostly attributed to processes such as incomplete lineage sorting rather than ongoing reproduction. The eleven lineages translate into at least seven species whose reproductive isolation is additionally indicated by sympatry, including both Australian Eocyzicus species previously described. Another three lineages may constitute further species, but their clear allopatric distribution rendered the test for reproductive isolation inapplicable. One lineage appears not to be reproductively isolated and is therefore considered a genetically distinct lineage within one of the other species, and one divergent lineage within E. argillaquus may constitute an additional species. Although sympatry is very common – six species occur in the central Paroo River catchment in eastern Australia, for instance – syntopic occurrence is rare. It is possible that a combination of differing habitat preferences and priority effects inhibits the presence of more than one Eocyzicus species per water body. There is little to no genetic differentiation between certain populations of the species found in eastern and central Australia (e.g. the Murray–Darling Basin, the Bulloo River catchment and the eastern and northern Lake Eyre Basin; LEB), suggesting high dispersal rates within this large area. Between the central Australian populations themselves, however (e.g. those inhabiting the central and western LEB), genetic differentiation is pronounced, probably as a result of the lack of abundance of important dispersal vectors (aquatic birds) and the lower diversity and density of suitable habitats in the area. The most prominent biogeographical break exists towards north‐eastern Australia (north‐east LEB), which does not share species with any other region studied.     

Note on drill (Mandrillus leucophaeus) ecology and conservation status in Korup National Park, Southwest Cameroon

We report preliminary findings on drill population ecology, feeding ecology, primate associations and conservation status in Korup National Park, Cameroon, based on analysis of data collected during 1,346 km (620 field hours) of trail patrols from February to June 2006. We encountered drills on 25 occasions and collected 304 fecal samples. Group size was estimated on four occasions (> or =25, > or =40, > or =67, > or =77), and multiple males were heard emitting the characteristic two-phase grunt of mature male drills in two of these groups. We saw a solitary male drill once. Examination of fecal samples indicated a seasonally variable diet consisting mainly of seeds, fruit pith, leaves and insects (especially ants and termites). Irvingia gabonensis and Musanga cecropioides fruits showed the highest percentage of occurrence in May (96%) and March (75%) samples, respectively, and could be a major food source for drills at that time. Drills were in association with at least one additional primate species during 57.9% of observations. These associations involved all of the diurnal primates found in Korup (Cercopithecus mona, Cercopithecus nictitans, Cercopithecus erythrotis, Cercopithecus pogonias, Piliocolobus preussi and Cercocebus torquatus) except chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). We discuss our findings in terms of existing knowledge about drill ecology and highlight the urgent need for the protection of the significant drill population in Korup National Park.     

Aegilops (Poaceae) in Italy: taxonomy,geographical distribution,ecology, vulnerability and conservation

ABSTRACT

Aegilops L. includes wild species from which, over millennia, man has cultivated forms of Triticum L. Ten species of Aegilops occur in Italy. Three species are allochthonous and eight out of ten species are recorded in the Apulia region. Five out of the ten species have been included in Red Lists. Each taxon is presented and discussed, citing old and new sites of occurrence, by examining specimens from many different herbaria, and describing their ecology and habitats, according to the Directive 92/43 EEC. A new taxonomic key, for the identification of all Aegilops species growing in Italy, is provided. The occurrence of Aegilops caudata L., A. peregrina (Hack. in J. Fraser) Maire & Weiller and A. speltoides Tausch in Italy is doubtful.     

The systematics and ecology of snakeheads (Pisces: Channidae) in Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore

Seven species of snakeheads (Channidae) are known from Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore, viz. Channa bankanensis, C. gachua, C. lucius, C. marulioides, C. melasoma, C. micropeltes and C. striata. Up-to-date distribution maps of each species are presented, including new records. Their systematics is reviewed and partially revised. The taxonomic status of C. marulioides and C. melanoptera is clarified. Specimens from Peninsular Malaysia identified as C. melanoptera sensu Weber & de Beaufort, 1922, proved to be the adult form of C. marulioides s.str. The real C. melanoptera appears to be restricted to Borneo and possibly Sumatra. The life history of a blackwater species C. bankanensis is also documented, with regards to the morphological and colour-pattern changes associated with growth. An updated key to the seven species based on morphometric measurements and meristic counts is presented.     

Tropical grassy biomes: linking ecology,human use and conservation

Tropical grassy biomes (TGBs) are changing rapidly the world over through a coalescence of high rates of land-use change, global change and altered disturbance regimes that maintain the ecosystem structure and function of these biomes. Our theme issue brings together the latest research examining the characterization, complex ecology, drivers of change, and human use and ecosystem services of TGBs. Recent advances in ecology and evolution have facilitated a new perspective on these biomes. However, there continues to be controversies over their classification and state dynamics that demonstrate critical data and knowledge gaps in our quantitative understanding of these geographically dispersed regions. We highlight an urgent need to improve ecological understanding in order to effectively predict the sensitivity and resilience of TGBs under future scenarios of global change. With human reliance on TGBs increasing and their propensity for change, ecological and evolutionary understanding of these biomes is central to the dual goals of sustaining their ecological integrity and the diverse services these landscapes provide to millions of people.This article is part of the themed issue ‘Tropical grassy biomes: linking ecology, human use and conservation’.     

Species inventory,ecology, and seasonal distribution patterns of Culicidae (Insecta: Diptera) in the National Park Donau-Auen (Lower Austria)

In order to improve the limited database on species inventories and ecology of Culicidae in Austria, we monitored hydrological and physico-chemical parameters of breeding habitats of the Culicidae species of Danubean wetlands from March to October 2011 in the National Park Donau-Auen (Lower Austria). A total of 34 eggrafts, 1022 larval, 80 pupal, and 221 adult Culicidae were collected. We detected 15 mosquito species belonging to the genera Anopheles Meigen, 1818, Culex Linnæus, 1758, Culiseta Felt, 1904, Coquillettidia Dyar, 1905, Aedes Meigen, 1818 and Ochlerotatus Lynch Arribalzaga, 1891. In the larval and pupal stage, Ochlerotatus geniculatus (Olivier, 1791) (64.1%) and Culex territans Walker, 1856 (18.7%) were most abundant. Based on abiotic and biotic parameters, sampling sites were grouped into four clusters. The results show that water level and -persistence, pH, conductivity, and phosphate concentrations had a significant influence on species distribution, and that floodplain dynamics are a key factor for the seasonal and spatial distribution of mosquito larvae in the National Park.     

Phylogenetic systematics of the Empis (Coptophlebia) hyalea-group (Insecta: Diptera: Empididae)

Six clades are inferred from a phylogenetic analysis including 42 species belonging to the Empis (Coptophlebia) hyalea‐group. These clades are named as follows: E. (C.) acris, E. (C.) aspina, E. (C.) atratata, E. (C.) hyalea, E. (C.) jacobsoni and E. (C.) nahaeoensis. The presence of two dorsal more or less developed epandrial projections is considered autapomorphic for the E. (C.) hyalea‐group in addition to two characters previously found to support the monophyly of this group (presence of an unsclerotized zone in the middle of labella and epandrium unpaired). Amongst the cladistically analysed species, 24 are newly described [ E. ( C. ) acris , E. ( C. ) aspina , E. ( C. ) cameronensis , E. ( C. ) duplex , E. ( C. ) incurva , E. ( C. ) inferiseta , E. ( C. ) kuaensis , E. ( C. ) lachaisei , E. ( C. ) lamellalta , E. ( C. ) lata , E. ( C. ) loici , E. ( C. ) longiseta , E. ( C. ) mengyangensis , E. ( C. ) menglunensis , E. ( C. ) missai , E. ( C. ) nimbaensis , E. ( C. ) padangensis , E. ( C. ) parvula , E. ( C. ) projecta , E. ( C. ) pseudonahaeoensis , E. ( C. ) submetallica , E. ( C. ) urumae , E. ( C. ) vitisalutatoris and E. ( C. ) woitapensis ], five are reviewed [E. (C.) hyalea Melander, E. (C.) jacobsoni De Meijere, E. (C.) ostentator Melander, E. (C.) sinensis Melander and E. (C.) thiasotes Melander] and 13 were recently described in two previous papers. Two additional species, E. (C.) abbrevinervis De Meijere and E. (C.) multipennata Melander, are also reviewed but not included in the cladistic analysis since they are only known from the female. A lectotype is designated for E. (C.) jacobsoni. A key is provided to the six clades of the E. (C.) hyalea‐group as well as to species of each clade. A catalogue of the E. (C.) hyalea‐group, including 72 species, is given. The taxonomic status of 25 additional species mainly described by Bezzi and Brunetti, from the Oriental and Australasian regions, is discussed. The E. (C.) hyalea‐group is firstly recorded from the Palaearctic Region and Australia. Finally, the distribution and the habitats of the species compared with their phylogeny suggest a possible relationship between the diversification of the group and forest fragmentations during the Quaternary. © 2005 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2005, 145 , 339–391.     

Populations of Lobaria pulmonaria (L.) Hoffm. in the Cansiglio Regional Forest (Veneto,Pre-Alps,north-east Italy): Distribution,diversity and conservation issues

Abstract

The distribution of the epiphytic macrolichen Lobaria pulmonaria (L.) Hoffm. was surveyed in the Regional Forest of Cansiglio, extending over 3,500 ha in the eastern part of the Veneto Pre-Alps (north-east Italy). Data on the main characteristics of the forest sites and on Lobaria trees were collected with the aim to evaluate the main ecological factors, related to forest composition and management, affecting the distribution of Lobaria pulmonaria. Lichen diversity was surveyed on 15 randomly selected Lobaria trees. A good correlation between macrolichens and the total number of species was found. The largest Lobaria populations are concentred in the north-eastern part of the forest, where mixed and multi-plane silver fir – beech formations prevail, and selective cutting is carried out. Our data has enabled us to develop some criteria for the identification of priority conservation sites for Lobaria pulmonaria and lichen diversity in the study area, improving the focus on biodiversity in the management of the forest.     

Onychophora in invertebrate conservation: priorities, practice and prospects

The rationale of promoting onychophorans as target taxa in invertebrate conservation is discussed. Current knowledge relevant to onychophoran conservation is outlined and gaps are identified. The prospects for conserving onychophorans are discussed, and priorities suggested.     

Consequences and Modes of Morphological Diversification of East African and Eurasian Barbins (genera Barbus, Varicorhinus and Capoeta) with Particular Reference to Barbus Intermedius Complex

Based on results of the comparison of skull proportions and using available data on phylogeny of barbins we discuss patterns of morphological diversity of the present forms and modes of morphological transformations resulting in their emergence. There is no strict correspondence between distance in a character space and genealogical closeness of forms. Similar forms of barbins independently originated from a generalized form in different sites of Africa and western Asia. Regularity of patterns of morphological diversity is thought to be caused by the channeling of morphological transformations. Heterochrony played an important part in evolution of the African large Barbus and Varicorhinus. Extraordinary morphological diversity of the African barbins, Lake Tana barbs in particular, is caused mainly by drastic changes in patterns of relative growth late in ontogeny.     

Molecular systematics of the Amazonian endemic genus Hylexetastes (Aves: Dendrocolaptidae): taxonomic and conservation implications

Hylexetastes woodcreepers are endemic to the terra firme forests of the Amazon basin. Currently, most taxonomic sources recognize two species of Hylexetastes (H. perrotii and H. stresemanni), each divided into three subspecies. Some authors maintain that the H. perrotii subspecies should be elevated to full species status. In particular, Hylexetastes perrotii brigidai is endemic to the eastern Amazon, the second Amazonian area of endemism (Xingu) most affected by deforestation and habitat degradation. Consequently, the taxonomic status of H. p. brigidai is of particular concern for conservation. Thus far, only morphological characters have been evaluated for the taxonomic delimitation of species and subspecies of Hylexetastes. We present a molecular phylogenetic analysis of all subspecies to help delimit Hylexetastes interspecific limits. Fragments of two mitochondrial (Cytb and ND2) and three nuclear genes (FGB5, G3PDH and MUSK) from 57 Hylexetastes specimens were sequenced. An ecological niche model was estimated to describe more accurately the potential distributions of taxa and to evaluate their vulnerability to ongoing deforestation. Phylogenetic analyses support the paraphyly of the polytypic H. perrotii as currently delimited and the elevation of Hylexetastes perrotii uniformis to full species rank, as well as the presence of three evolutionary significant units (ESUs) within this newly delimited species, including one grouping all H. p. brigidai specimens. Alternatively, under lineage-based species concepts, our results support at least five evolutionary species in Hylexetastes: H. stresemanni, H. undulatus, H. perrotii, H. uniformis and H. brigidai. Each of these taxa and ESUs are distributed in different interfluvial areas of the Amazon basin, which have different degrees of disturbance. Because they occupy the most heavily impacted region among all Hylexetastes ESUs, regular assessments of the conservation statuses of H. p. brigidai and both H. uniformis ESUs are paramount.     

Allopatric distribution,ecology and conservation status of the Pilosella alpicola group (Asteraceae)

The Pilosella alpicola group comprises four morphologically distinct and geographically vicariant alpine taxa. We performed a thorough herbarium revision and literature survey to infer their distributional pattern(s). Pilosella alpicola s.s. occurs in the Alps in two disjunct areas: the Swiss Valais Alps and the Italian Dolomites. Historical records come also from the Austrian Alps (Gurktaler Alps and Hohe Tauern) and from one site from the Alpes Maritimes (Col de Larche), but the localities have not been recently confirmed. Pilosella rhodopea, a Balkan subendemic taxon, is quite widespread in Bulgaria (Stara planina Mts, Rila Mts and Pirin Mts), but is more rare in Albania, Greece and Macedonia. Interestingly, this species has also been recorded at two isolated sites in the Romanian southern Carpathians (the C?p??înii and Cozia Mts). This occurrence underlines the floristic affinities of this part of the Carpathians to the Balkan flora. Only two localities of P. serbica, based on voucher specimens, have been recorded so far; Kopaonik Mts in Serbia and the Prokletije Mts in Montenegro. The records from other ranges are related to P. rhodopea. Pilosella ullepitschii, the detailed distribution of which has already been published, is a Carpathian endemic with its core area of distribution in the western Carpathians (Slovakia and Poland). Three isolated localities are also known in the eastern Carpathians (Nemira Mts) and one locality in the southern Carpathians (Bucegi Mts). The possible causes of disjunctions between and within species ranges are briefly discussed. Based on the distributional data, population sizes and ecology, we evaluate the conservation status of the P. alpicola taxa and propose their inclusion in national Red Lists.