Urban ponds as an aquatic biodiversity resource in modified landscapes

Urbanization is a global process contributing to the loss and fragmentation of natural habitats. Many studies have focused on the biological response of terrestrial taxa and habitats to urbanization. However, little is known regarding the consequences of urbanization on freshwater habitats, especially small lentic systems. In this study, we examined aquatic macro‐invertebrate diversity (family and species level) and variation in community composition between 240 urban and 782 nonurban ponds distributed across the United Kingdom. Contrary to predictions, urban ponds supported similar numbers of invertebrate species and families compared to nonurban ponds. Similar gamma diversity was found between the two groups at both family and species taxonomic levels. The biological communities of urban ponds were markedly different to those of nonurban ponds, and the variability in urban pond community composition was greater than that in nonurban ponds, contrary to previous work showing homogenization of communities in urban areas. Positive spatial autocorrelation was recorded for urban and nonurban ponds at 0–50 km (distance between pond study sites) and negative spatial autocorrelation was observed at 100–150 km and was stronger in urban ponds in both cases. Ponds do not follow the same ecological patterns as terrestrial and lotic habitats (reduced taxonomic richness) in urban environments; in contrast, they support high taxonomic richness and contribute significantly to regional faunal diversity. Individual cities are complex structural mosaics which evolve over long periods of time and are managed in diverse ways. This facilitates the development of a wide range of environmental conditions and habitat niches in urban ponds which can promote greater heterogeneity between pond communities at larger scales. Ponds provide an opportunity for managers and environmental regulators to conserve and enhance freshwater biodiversity in urbanized landscapes whilst also facilitating key ecosystem services including storm water storage and water treatment.     

The distribution of pond snail communities across a landscape: separating out the influence of spatial position from local habitat quality for ponds in south-east Northumberland,UK

Ponds support a rich biodiversity because the heterogeneity of individual ponds creates, at the landscape scale, a diversity of habitats for wildlife. The distribution of pond animals and plants will be influenced by both the local conditions within a pond and the spatial distribution of ponds across the landscape. Separating out the local from the spatial is difficult because the two are often linked. Pond snails are likely to be affected by both local conditions, e.g. water hardness, and spatial patterns, e.g. distance between ponds, but studies of snail communities struggle distinguishing between the two. In this study, communities of snails were recorded from 52 ponds in a biogeographically coherent landscape in north-east England. The distribution of snail communities was compared to local environments characterised by the macrophyte communities within each pond and to the spatial pattern of ponds throughout the landscape. Mantel tests were used to partial out the local versus the landscape respective influences. Snail communities became more similar in ponds that were closer together and in ponds with similar macrophyte communities as both the local and the landscape scale were important for this group of animals. Data were collected from several types of ponds, including those created on nature reserves specifically for wildlife, old field ponds (at least 150 years old) primarily created for watering livestock and subsidence ponds outside protected areas or amongst coastal dunes. No one pond type supported all the species. Larger, deeper ponds on nature reserves had the highest numbers of species within individual ponds but shallow, temporary sites on farm land supported a distinct temporary water fauna. The conservation of pond snails in this region requires a diversity of pond types rather than one idealised type and ponds scattered throughout the area at a variety of sites, not just concentrated on nature reserves. Handling editor: B. Oertli     

Diversity partitioning in Permian and Early Triassic benthic ecosystems of the Western USA: a comparison

This paper compares the relative contributions of within-habitat diversity [alpha-diversity] and between-habitat-diversity [beta-diversity] to regional diversity [gamma-diversity] in marine benthic communities of the western US before and after the end-Permian mass extinction. We found that presumably cool-water faunas from the Permian Gerster Limestone and the Park City Formation had low alpha- and beta-diversities, comparable to those of low diverse faunas of the Early Triassic. In contrast, tropical Permian faunas had much higher alpha-diversities and a variable pattern of beta-diversity: Whereas faunas of space-limited bioherms show a positive correlation between beta-diversity and gamma-diversity, beta-diversity in level-bottom faunas is elevated only when gamma-diversity is very high (>250 species). This contrasting pattern probably reflects differential effects of interspecific competition on habitat partitioning. In low-competitive level-bottom faunas, species are able to coexist until competition forces species into their ecological optima, thereby increasing beta-diversity. This effect occurs at much lower gamma-diversities in more competitive reef-bound faunas, causing the observed positive correlation between beta- and gamma-diversity. We suggest that differences in the level of interspecific competition and hence diversity partitioning between Permian and Triassic benthic communities result from the higher average metabolic rates in the Mesozoic mollusc-dominated benthos in contrast to their Permian counterparts.     

Environmental correlates of plant and invertebrate species richness in ponds

Ponds (lentic water bodies <2 ha) constitute a considerable biodiversity resource. Understanding the environmental factors that underlie this diversity is important in protecting and managing the habitat. We surveyed 425 ponds for biological and physical characteristics with 78 of those also surveyed for chemical characteristics. A total of 277 invertebrate species and 265 plant species were found. Species richness varied between 2 and 99 (mean 27.2 ± 0.6 SE) for invertebrates and 1 and 58 (mean 20.8 ± 0.4 SE) for plants. Generalised additive models were used to investigate variables that correlate with the species richness of plants and invertebrates, with additional models to investigate insect, Coleoptera, Odonata, Hemiptera, Trichoptera and Mollusca species richness. Models performed reasonably well for invertebrates in general (R ² = 30.3%) but varied between lower-order invertebrate taxa (12.7–34.7%). Ponds with lower levels of shading and no history of drying contained higher numbers of species of plants and all invertebrate groups. Aquatic plant coverage positively correlated with species richness in all invertebrate groups apart from Trichoptera and the presence of fish was associated with high invertebrate species richness in all groups apart from Coleoptera. The addition of chemistry variables suggested non-linear relationships between oxygen demand and phosphate concentration and higher-order richness. We demonstrate that the composition of biological communities varies along with their species richness and that less diverse ponds are more variable compared to more diverse ponds. Variables positively correlated with richness of one taxon may be negatively correlated with that of another, making comprehensive management recommendations difficult. Promoting a high landscape-level pond biodiversity will involve the management of a high diversity of pond types within that landscape.     

Are cladoceran diversity and community structure linked to spatial heterogeneity in urban landscapes and pond environments?

Biodiversity patterns in cladoceran communities were investigated in urban waterbodies in relation with residential land use, pond management, and waterbody environments. We evaluated species richness in the pelagic and littoral zones of eighteen waterbodies of a large Canadian city. Gamma diversity (26 species) observed at a small scale in the urban survey was important comparatively to large-scale surveys of lakes. Beta diversity ranged from 1 to 8 species among waterbodies. We tested if littoral species greatly contributed to regional diversity in urban waterbodies. Littoral species (Chydoridae, Ilyocryptidae, Macrothricidae, Polyphemidae) accounted for 58% of the total species pool. We distinguished five cladoceran assemblages associated to different waterbodies (temporary ponds, permanent lakes, and wetlands). Cladoceran communities were more diverse and variable in permanent lakes than in temporary ponds. Changes in cladoceran species assemblages among waterbodies were driven by variations in waterbody size and phosphorus enrichment, macrophyte and algal biomass, urban density, pond management practices, and the presence of potential predators as fish and macroinvertebrates. Our study indicates that both artificial ponds and lakes and natural wetlands are valuable habitats for the conservation of cladoceran biodiversity and rare endemic species in urban regions. Further research on pond management strategies promoting urban aquatic biodiversity should be undertaken.     

Computing additive beta-diversity from presence and absence scores: a critique and alternative parameters

Whittaker first proposed to measure the variation in species composition among plots or beta-diversity as the ratio between regional diversity (gamma-diversity) and average local diversity (alpha-diversity). More recently, an alternative way of partitioning diversity for which beta-diversity is obtained as the difference between gamma-diversity and average alpha-diversity has become very popular for linking the structure of species assemblages to ecosystem functioning in a spatially explicit manner. Unfortunately, additive beta-diversity computed from species presences and absences suffers from the major drawback of being dependent on regional species richness. For instance, if the separation between beta-diversity and gamma-diversity is incomplete, so that variation in species composition is affected by species richness, then differences in beta-diversity values among different sets of plots could reflect differences in the species count rather than any fundamental difference in species composition among the plots. Based on the above observation, in this paper I will first propose a basic requirement for beta-diversity measures that adequately captures our intuitive notion of independence of species richness. Next, I will show that additive beta-diversity computed from species presence and absence scores can be interpreted within the framework of fuzzy set theory. Finally, based on this unusual "fuzzy" interpretation of additive beta-diversity, I will introduce two families of parametric beta-diversity measures whose members have varying sensitivities to the presence of rare and frequent species.     

The role of small secondary biotopes in a highly fragmented landscape as habitat and connectivity providers for dragonflies (Insecta: Odonata)

Habitat loss and degradation are considered major threats to freshwater biodiversity and to invertebrates in particular. These often irreversible processes may lead to local and regional extinctions of species, most notably of stenotopic taxa. In spite of this, a number of studies have shown that small habitat patches can sustain rich and abundant communities. The present work assesses the relevance of a group of four small man-made (secondary) wildlife ponds to Odonata species diversity and abundance. Results obtained on pond recruiting capacity, species richness, abundance and habitat use by means of exuviae collection and monitoring of adults using a capture–mark–recapture (CMR) method indicate the potential suitability of these small aquatic biotopes and the surrounding landscape as habitat providers and stepping stone connectors in the Vallès lowlands (Catalonia, Spain). This region, close to the metropolitan area of Barcelona, has severely degraded natural habitats and high landscape fragmentation due to infrastructure, urban and industrial expansion. A comparison among a greater number of sites (ponds and sections of streams and rivers) distributed across the region showed that adequately managed small waterbodies harbour richer Odonata communities than others that are unmanaged or managed specifically for other types of fauna or uses. Appropriate care of these small biotopes avoids disturbance and keeps them free from vertebrates like fish and waterfowl which, under certain conditions, may have a strong influence on the invertebrate communities because, apart from feeding on larvae, they may have a negative impact on macrophyte development and water quality. While rivers and streams, the only natural aquatic habitats in the area, may be both expensive and technically challenging to restore and manage successfully, the creation and/or restoration of small ponds and short river sections in suitable locations can be a cost-effective method for enhancing freshwater vegetation and invertebrate diversity in this impacted landscape.     

河岸无脊椎动物多样性维持机制研究进展

河岸是河流与陆地之间重要的生态界面,生物多样性丰富,但受到人为活动的严重威胁。无脊椎动物在河岸生物多样性中占有重要地位,发挥着非常重要的生态功能,也是水生生态系统和陆地生态系统之间物质和能量联系的重要纽带。尽管已有很多学者对河岸无脊椎动物群落进行了研究,但缺乏对河岸无脊椎动物多样性维持机制的总结。本文结合洪水和干旱、营养物质、微生境多样性、河岸植被、微气候梯度、食物资源以及河流空间梯度等影响因素,初步讨论和归纳了河岸无脊椎动物多样性的维持机制。周期性洪水和干旱引发了无脊椎动物的繁殖和迁移等行为,增加了河岸无脊椎动物群落周转率,为无脊椎动物创造了理想的条件。充足的营养物质使河岸具有较高的初级生产力,支撑了较高的无脊椎动物多样性。较高的微生境多样性为无脊椎动物提供了多样的生态位空间,孕育了特殊的河岸无脊椎动物种类。复杂的河岸植物群落不但是河岸无脊椎动物的食物来源之一,也为河岸无脊椎动物提供了多样的生态位空间和重要的避难场所。微气候环境的空间分异提供了复杂多样的生境条件,为水生无脊椎动物和陆生无脊椎动物种类在河岸共存创造了条件。跨越界面的资源补给增加了河岸无脊椎动物的食物可利用率,为河岸无脊椎动物提供了特殊的食物来源。这些因素在空间上呈现出明显的纵向梯度和侧向梯度,从更大尺度上为河岸无脊椎动物的多样化提供了条件。因此,探讨河岸无脊椎动物多样性的维持机制对于河岸生物多样性保护以及河流生态系统综合管理具有重要的指导意义。     

Weak altitudinal pattern of overall chironomid richness is a result of contrasting trends of subfamilies in high-altitude ponds

The decline of species richness with altitude is one of the most obvious patterns in ecology and results from the combination of ecological and evolutionary mechanisms. In harsh high-altitude environments, the effect of altitude usually overrules other environmental variables related to biodiversity. Studies using species richness along altitude gradients in high altitude are relatively numerous for lakes, but not for ponds. However, due to their special features, such as small size, high isolation and regional variability, ponds have been proved to be different systems compared to lakes. In high-altitude waterbodies, species of the family Chironomidae often dominate in benthic invertebrate communities and thus serve as an ideal model to study aquatic community changes along an altitude gradient. However, due to the time-consuming processing and expertise needed to identify the species, chironomids are often excluded from regular surveys. In the present study, we sampled 66 Tatra ponds over a 1100-m altitude gradient for benthic invertebrates, with special attention to chironomids. Out of the total 122 taxa collected, Chironomidae constituted the richest group with 58 taxa, being present in all the study ponds. The most diverse pond supported 13 chironomid taxa, and mean diversity was 6 taxa/pond. While total invertebrate richness decreased with altitude, chironomid richness showed only a weak negative response to altitude. The proportion of total chironomid diversity made up of Tanypodinae and Chironominae subfamilies decreased with altitude, while the opposite trend was recorded for the proportion of Diamesinae and Orthocladiinae.     

Patterns in benthic food webs: a role for omnivorous crayfish?

1. The biomass and species richness of macrophytes and invertebrates in artificial ponds at two sites in southern Sweden (twenty-one ponds at each site) were investigated. Alkalinity was high at one site (H ponds) and low at the other site (L ponds). The ponds chosen had different densities of signal crayfish (Pacifastacus leniusculus), with mean crayfish abundance (estimated by trapping and expressed as catch per unit effort) significantly higher in the L ponds (10.7) than in the H ponds (4.9). Macrophytes, invertebrates, the amount of periphyton on stones and the organic content of the sediment were determined in each pond. 2. Macrophyte biomass, cover and species richness declined with increasing crayfish density. Macrophyte species composition differed between ponds and was related to crayfish abundance. 3. The total biomass of invertebrates and the biomass of herbivorous/detritivorous invertebrates declined with increasing crayfish abundance, but the biomass of predatory invertebrates declined only in the L ponds. The relative biomass of Gastropoda and Odonata declined in ponds where crayfish were abundant. In ponds where crayfish were abundant the invertebrate fauna was dominated by sediment-dwelling taxa (Sialis (H and L ponds) and Chironomidae (H ponds)). 4. The number of invertebrate taxa in macrophytes declined with increasing crayfish abundance. The percentage of macrophyte-associated invertebrate taxa differed between ponds, but also between sites. The relative biomass of Gastropoda declined in H ponds where crayfish were abundant. In H ponds Trichoptera or Gammarus sp. and Heteroptera dominated where crayfish were abundant, whereas Odonata dominated in L ponds with abundant crayfish. 5. The organic content of the sediment decreased in ponds with high crayfish densities, while the amount of periphyton on stones was not related to crayfish density. 6. We conclude that the signal crayfish may play an important role as a keystone consumer in pond ecosystems, but lower trophic levels did not respond to changes in the abundance of the crayfish according to the trophic cascade model. Omnivorous crayfish may decouple the cascading effect.     

Local and landscape scale determinants of macroinvertebrate assemblages and their conservation value in ponds across an urban land-use gradient

Urbanisation represents a growing threat to natural communities across the globe. Small aquatic habitats such as ponds are especially vulnerable and are often poorly protected by legislation. Many ponds are threatened by development and pollution from the surrounding landscape, yet their biodiversity and conservation value remain poorly described. Here we report the results of a survey of 30 ponds along an urban land-use gradient in the West Midlands, UK. We outline the environmental conditions of these urban ponds to identify which local and landscape scale environmental variables determine the biodiversity and conservation value of the macroinvertebrate assemblages in the ponds. Cluster analysis identified four groups of ponds with contrasting macroinvertebrate assemblages reflecting differences in macrophyte cover, nutrient status, riparian shading, the nature of the pond edge, surrounding land-use and the availability of other wetland habitats. Pond conservation status varied markedly across the sites. The richest macroinvertebrate assemblages with high conservation value were found in ponds with complex macrophyte stands and floating vegetation with low nutrient concentrations and little surrounding urban land. The most impoverished assemblages were found in highly urban ponds with hard-engineered edges, heavy shading and nutrient rich waters. A random forest classification model revealed that local factors usually had primacy over landscape scale factors in determining pond conservation value, and constitute a priority focus for management.     

Livestock disturbances in Mediterranean temporary ponds: A mesocosm experiment with sheep manure and simulated trampling

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When humans work like beavers: riparian restoration enhances invertebrate gamma diversity and habitat heterogeneity

Restoration has the potential to increase habitat heterogeneity through the creation of unique habitat patches that, in turn, increase regional species richness or gamma diversity. While biological diversity and habitat heterogeneity are important factors to consider under a shifting climate, restoration actions and outcomes rarely examine these components. In this study, we examined the effects of riparian beaver dam analog (BDA) restoration on aquatic invertebrate diversity and habitat heterogeneity. Although the effects of BDAs on hydrology, geomorphology, and salmonid habitat have been explored, we are unaware of any studies assessing their effects on aquatic invertebrate diversity and the food web that supports them. We sampled aquatic invertebrates, basal carbon resources, dissolved nutrients, turbidity, and water temperature in pre- and post-BDA pond, side channel, and mainstem habitat over a three-year period. The BDAs functioned similarly to natural beaver dams and created slow-water environments that accumulated fine particulate organic material and increased pelagic phytoplankton production. Nonmetric multidimensional scaling, permutation multivariate analysis of variance, and Mantel's tests demonstrated that these changes led to the formation of a unique invertebrate community populated by lentic macroinvertebrates and zooplankton, which increased beta-diversity and gamma diversity. Further, BDAs in our study maintained high densities of invertebrates and buffered water temperatures in comparison to adjacent lotic habitats. These results support our hypothesis that BDAs can enhance invertebrate beta and gamma diversity through the creation and colonization of unique pond habitat and improve habitat and resource heterogeneity for native fishes under variable climate conditions.     

Effects of hydroperiod and predation on a Mississippi River floodplain invertebrate community

 The objective of this study was to determine if pond permanence and vertebrate predation (by fish and waterfowl) affect invertebrate community structure in the mudflat habitat of floodplain ponds. Invertebrate communities were studied for 1 year in four Mississippi River floodplain ponds with different hydroperiods. Pond 1 experienced five dry periods, pond 2 experienced four, pond 3 dried once, and standing water remained in pond 4 for the entire year. Vertebrate predator exclusion treatments (all access, no access, small-fish access and cage controls) were placed in all ponds. As pond duration increased, predatory invertebrate richness and abundance increased while overall invertebrate richness and abundance decreased. With the exception of the cladoceran Diaphanosoma, all commonly encountered taxa were strongly affected by pond permanence in terms of abundance, biomass and, generally, individual biomass. Taxa were nearly early divided between those that were more abundant in less permanent ponds and those that were more abundant in longer-duration ponds. Invertebrate taxa richness, abundance, and total biomass were lower in the all-access treatment than in the treatments that restricted predator access, and these effects were stronger in the more permanent ponds. In general, there were no significant differences in responses to the treatments with small-fish access and no access. These results support models that predict relatively weak effects of predation in frequently disturbed habitats. Received: 30 May 1995 / Accepted: 21 June 1996     

Impacts of cadmium contamination and fish presence on wetland invertebrate communities: An application of population measures and multi-metric tests

Wetlands are extensively used in heavy metal bioremediation, and it is important to know how biota are impacted by such toxins. I examined invertebrate communities in six experimental wetland ponds in Ithaca, NY, USA to assess the effects of residual cadmium. Three ponds had been treated with cadmium in 1983, and still had average levels of 3.6 mg/kg in the sediment in 2001. Also, two of the cadmium ponds and one non-cadmium pond had predatory fish populations. I quantified the variable effects on invertebrate communities using non-parametric statistics, CCA (canonical correspondence analysis), and three published multi-metric tests (Burton et al., 1999, Apfelbeck, 2001, Helgen and Gernes, 2001). Cadmium effects could not be seen in ponds with fish because invertebrate abundance in these ponds was low. In ponds without fish, cadmium appeared to have significant influence on invertebrate abundance, but not on diversity. None of the multi-metric tests detected a cadmium impact. This study suggests that trophic interactions between fish and invertebrates should be considered in wetland index development and implementation.     

The colonization of ball-clay ponds by macroinvertebrates and macrophytes

SUMMARY. 1. The rate and nature of colonization of ball-clay ponds by aquatic macrophytes and macroinvertebrates were studied by comparing communities present in a scries of ten ponds of similar dimensions, but of different ages, ranging from 6 months to 15 years.
2. Multivariate analyses of the biotic data distinguished between'neutral'and'acid'ponds; further analyses concentrated on the former type.
3. Initial colonization of neutral ponds was rapid with a predictable sequence of species arrival, probably reflecting short dispersal distances. Variations in macroinvertebrate invasion times were related to dispersal strategy and ability. As the pond aged, successional changes, linked with macrophyte colonization, produced a shift in dominance from algivores and predators towards epiphyton grazers and detritivores. Some evidence of succession of species within invertebrate orders was found.
4. Low pH affected colonization principally by preventing the establishment of acid-intolerant immigrant species, but also by retarding succession.
5. It is concluded that non-interactive models of insular colonization, with constant immigration and extinction rates, are of limited applicability to pond colonization in temperate areas.     

Contribution of paddock trees to the conservation of terrestrial invertebrate biodiversity within grazed native pastures

Abstract: Paddock trees are a common feature in the agricultural landscapes of Australia. Recent studies have demonstrated the value of scattered paddock trees for soil fertility, native pasture plants and arboreal faunas; however, the degree to which scattered paddock trees contribute to the conservation of terrestrial invertebrate biodiversity within grazed landscapes remains unknown. We ask three questions: (i) Is there a difference between the terrestrial invertebrate assemblages found under paddock trees compared with surrounding grazed native pastures? (ii) Can gradients in soil and litter variables from the base of trees explain patterns in invertebrate assemblages? and (iii) Does the presence of scattered paddock trees have implications for the conservation of terrestrial invertebrate biodiversity within grazed native pastures? We used pitfall trapping and extraction from soil cores to sample the invertebrate assemblages under six New England Peppermint trees (Eucalyptus nova‐anglica Deane and Maiden) and compared them with assemblages sampled from the open paddock. Formicidae and Collembola univariate and multivariate data were analysed along with a range of soil and litter variables. We found (i) significant differences in the assemblages of invertebrates under trees compared with surrounding grazed pastures; (ii) that most soil and litter variables revealed gradients away from tree bases and these variables explained significant variation in invertebrate assemblages; and (iii) more native invertebrates and more species of invertebrates were found under trees compared with the surrounding pastures. We discuss the relationships between paddock trees, the ground and soil environments and the invertebrate communities that inhabit these environments, and conclude with a discussion of the future for paddock trees and the biota supported by them.     

The temporal dynamics of temporary pond macroinvertebrate communities over a 10-year period

Ponds support a rich biodiversity. This arises in part because of the number and heterogeneity of ponds spatially throughout the landscape. Studies of ponds suggest that distinct communities develop within individual ponds but most examples are based on short-term 1- or 2-year surveys which cannot identify the effects of historic events upon contemporary communities. This study reports the development and turnover of the early summer macroinvertebrate communities in thirty small temporary ponds from their creation in 1994 over 10 years to 2004. Distinct pioneer communities established in the first year of the ponds’ creation, the first 3 years dominated by a fauna associated with long summer dry phases. Then a sustained period of inundation lasting 27 months from summer 1997–1999 resulted in establishment of many taxa associated with permanent ponds and loss of some temporary pond species. The re-establishment of summer dry phases in 1999 was associated with the loss of some but not all of the permanent water taxa and re-colonisation by some temporary water species creating new communities combining these different elements. The communities were not a linear successional sequence; the communities that re-assembled following resumption of dry phases reflected the contingent history of each pond and the effects of historic events. The longer term nature of the study showed that the characteristic heterogeneity of pond invertebrate communities occurs through time as well as spatially and that the richness and variety of contemporary communities, which is often hard to explain from snap-shot studies, is partly the result of historic events.     

Garden pond diversity: Opportunities for urban freshwater conservation

Urbanisation is increasing globally, degrading terrestrial and freshwater habitats and reducing faunal and floral richness. Whilst the potential for garden ponds to serve as important biodiversity resources in urban areas has been documented in a limited number of studies, quantifying the contribution of garden ponds to urban freshwater diversity has been largely neglected. This study aims to quantify the taxonomic richness, community composition and conservation value of aquatic macroinvertebrates in domestic garden and non-urban ponds. Taxonomic richness was significantly lower in garden ponds than non-urban ponds at an alpha and gamma scale. A greater richness of Odonata, Coleoptera, Gastropoda and Hemiptera were recorded in non-urban ponds. Garden ponds were found to support compositionally different macroinvertebrate communities compared to non-urban ponds, influenced by variation in water depth and conductivity. A total of 23 taxa were recorded from garden ponds only. Non-urban ponds had a significantly higher conservation value compared to garden ponds (87% of garden ponds were of low or moderate conservation value, while only 35% of non-urban ponds were in these categories). Although garden ponds currently support limited macroinvertebrate diversity and have lower conservation value, they contribute to the regional species pool and their potential to limit future urban biodiversity loss is significant. Given their high abundance and popularity within the urban landscape, clear guidance is required for pond-owners on how to best manage garden ponds to support and sustain biodiversity. For this to be achieved, research is required to increase fundamental understanding of urban pond ecology, and the development of evidence led garden pond management practices.