The KA-2 subunit of excitatory amino acid receptors shows widespread expression in brain and forms ion channels with distantly related subunits.

A new ionotropic glutamate receptor subunit termed KA-2, cloned from rat brain cDNA, exhibits high affinity for [3H]kainate (KD approximately 15 nM). KA-2 mRNA is widely expressed in embryonic and adult brain. Homomeric KA-2 expression does not generate agonist-sensitive channels, but currents are observed when KA-2 is coexpressed with GluR5 or GluR6 subunits. Specifically, coexpression of GluR5(R) and KA-2 produces channel activity, whereas homomeric expression of either subunit does not. Currents through heteromeric GluR5(Q)/KA-2 channels show more rapid desensitization and different current-voltage relations when compared with GluR5(Q) currents. GluR6/KA-2 channels are gated by AMPA, which fails to gate homomeric GluR6 receptor channels. These results suggest possible in vivo partnership relations for high affinity kainate receptors.     

The interaction of a kainate receptor from goldfish brain with a pertussis toxin-sensitive GTP-binding protein.

Kainate receptors are present in high concentrations in goldfish brain (Henley and Oswald, 1988a and b; Ziegra et al., 1990), possibly in neuronal and glial cells. In a number of systems, the kainate receptor has been assumed to be an integral ion channel (Watkins and Evans, 1981); but, for some kainate receptors, ion channel activity has not been demonstrated (Wada et al., 1989). This study presents evidence that a portion of the [3H]kainate-binding sites in goldfish brain is sensitive to guanine nucleotides, with a loss of high affinity binding in the presence of nonhydrolyzable GTP analogs. Pertussis toxin pretreatment of membranes causes a loss of high affinity [3H]kainate binding and of the guanine nucleotide-sensitive binding. Pertussis toxin catalyzes the specific [32P]ADP-ribosylation of a 40-kDa substrate in a kainate-sensitive manner. In addition, incorporation of [alpha-32P]GTP-gamma-azidoanilide by photoaffinity labeling was enhanced in the presence of kainate. These results indicate that a subpopulation of [3H]kainate-binding sites in goldfish brain may be coupled to G proteins.     

Solubilisation and Characterisation of a Putative Quisqualate-Type Glutamate Receptor from Chick Brain

The brains of 1-day-old chicks were shown to be a rich source of binding sites with the pharmacological characteristics expected of a quisqualate-type glutamate receptor. alpha-[3H]Amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazolepropionate ([3H]AMPA) bound with KD and Bmax values, measured at 0 degree C in the presence of the chaotrope potassium thiocyanate, of 55 nM and 2.6 pmol/mg protein. The regional localisations of [3H]AMPA and [3H]kainate binding sites were manifestly different. The membrane-bound [3H]AMPA binding sites were efficiently solubilised by N-octyl-beta-D-glucopyranoside (1%) in the presence of 0.2 M thiocyanate. In the detergent extract the affinity was 69 nM and there was an apparent increase in the number of sites (Bmax, 4.6 pmol/mg protein). The rank order of potency for competitive ligands in displacing [3H]AMPA binding was quisqualate approximately AMPA greater than 6-cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione greater than L-glutamate greater than kainate and was identical for the membrane-bound and solubilised sites. Dissociation was biphasic with rate constants of 0.117 min-1 and 0.015 min-1. The association rate constants for [3H]AMPA at the solubilised sites were 1.45 x 10(6) M-1 min-1 and 6.55 x 10(6) M-1 min-1. The kinetically derived KD values were 80.7 nM and 2.3 nM. The detection of higher affinity binding sites by kinetic analysis but not by equilibrium binding may be explained by the greater sensitivity of dissociation data to small populations of high-affinity sites.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Pharmacology of putative glutamate receptors from insect skeletal muscles, insect central nervous system and rat brain

Binding of [3H]glutamate to housefly brain and honeybee brain and thoracic muscle membranes as well as to the American cockroach nerve cord was measured in Na+-free Tris-citrate buffer, 2.5 mM CaCl2, pH 7.4. The dissociation constants (KDS) ranged from 0.16 to 1.36 microM, and thoracic muscles had 2-4-fold higher density of receptors than brain tissue. The potent inhibitors of housefly brain binding were in decreasing order of effectiveness: L-glutamate greater than L-aspartate = L-cysteate = ibotenate greater than quisqualate greater than L-homocysteate greater than L-APB greater than L-APV greater than NMDA greater than D-APB greater than D-glutamate, with no inhibition by 100 microM of GDEE, dihydrokainate, D-APV, D-homocysteate or D-aspartate. The drug specificity of [3H]glutamate binding sites in housefly brain was generally similar to that of binding sites in housefly muscle, except that the former had a slightly higher affinity for L-APB, L-homocysteate and NMDA. [3H]Glutamate binding to insect tissues differed in its drug sensitivity from binding to rat brain. Binding to insect membranes was much less sensitive to L-APB, D-APB, APV, homocysteate, L-cysteate, quisqualate and ibotenate. However, the insect binding site was much more stereoselective for the L than D isomers of glutamate and aspartate, while the rat brain site was more stereoselective for APB. It is suggested that the observed [3H]glutamate binding to insect tissue is not to NMDA or kainate receptors.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Functional Consequences of Natural Substitutions in the GluR6 Kainate Receptor Subunit Ligand-Binding Site

Differences in binding-site residues of GluR2 (AMPAR) and GluR6 (KAR) subunits have been identified that might account for their functional and pharmacological differences. Specifically, residues A518, A689 and N721 in GluR6 replace highly conserved threonine and serine residues found in other ionotropic glutamate receptor (iGluR) subunits. To define how these natural substitutions impact GluR6 function, we used patch clamp recording with ultrafast perfusion to characterize the effects of A518T, A689S, and N721T on agonist potency, efficacy and response kinetics. We find these natural substitutions impact GluR6 function less than would be expected from reverse mutations in other iGluRs. There was little effect of individual or combined mutations on glutamate potency, deactivation or desensitization kinetics. Altered recovery kinetics were seen that were greatest after combined mutations. Kainate potency and response kinetics were also unchanged in the mutants, whereas kainate efficacy was reduced in A518T and increased the T/S/T mutant relative glutamate. Notably, A518T and A689S mutation permitted AMPA to bind as a weak competitive antagonist and the effects of these mutations were additive. N721T mutation further enhanced AMPA binding, allowing AMPA to activate and fully desensitize the receptors. Alternative mutations altering side chain length at position 518 produced far greater changes in glutamate affinity and response kinetics than did the natural mutations. We conclude that these non-conserved residues in GluR6 define the size of the agonist-binding pocket, exerting a steric influence on the bound agonist and the extent of binding-domain closure that can influence agonist potency, deactivation, desensitization and recovery kinetics.     

Characterization and Regional Distribution of α2-Adrenoceptors in Postmortem Human Brain Using the Full Agonist [3H]UK 14304

The full agonist [3H]UK 14304 [5-bromo-6-(2-imidazolin-2-yl-amino)-quinoxaline] was used to characterize alpha 2-adrenoceptors in postmortem human brain. The binding at 25 degrees C was rapid (t1/2, 4.6 min) and reversible (t1/2, 14.1 min), and the KD determined from the kinetic studies was 0.48 nM. In frontal cortex, the rank order of potency of adrenergic drugs competing with [3H]UK 14304 or [3H]clonidine showed the specificity for an alpha 2A-adrenoceptor: UK 14304 approximately equal to yohimbine approximately equal to oxymetazoline approximately equal to clonidine greater than phentolamine approximately equal to (-)-adrenaline greater than idazoxan approximately equal to (-)-noradrenaline greater than phenylephrine greater than (+/-)-adrenaline much greater than corynanthine greater than prazosin much greater than (+/-)-propranolol. GTP induced a threefold decrease in the affinity of [3H]UK 14304, with no alteration in the maximum number of binding sites, suggesting that the radioligand labelled the high-affinity state of the alpha 2-adrenoceptor. In the frontal cortex, analyses of saturation curves indicated the existence of a single population of noninteracting sites for [3H]UK 14304 (KD = 0.35 +/- 0.13 nM; Bmax = 74 +/- 9 fmol/mg of protein). In other brain regions (hypothalamus, hippocampus, cerebellum, brainstem, caudate nucleus, and amygdala) the Bmax ranged from 68 +/- 7 to 28 +/- 4 fmol/mg of protein. No significant changes in the KD values were found in the different regions examined. The binding of [3H]UK 14304 was not affected by age, sex or postmortem delay.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Functional consequences of natural substitutions in the GluR6 kainate receptor subunit ligand-binding site

Differences in binding-site residues of GluR2 (AMPAR) and GluR6 (KAR) subunits have been identified that might account for their functional and pharmacological differences. Specifically, residues A518, A689 and N721 in GluR6 replace highly conserved threonine and serine residues found in other ionotropic glutamate receptor (iGluR) subunits. To define how these natural substitutions impact GluR6 function, we used patch clamp recording with ultrafast perfusion to characterize the effects of A518T, A689S and N721T on agonist potency, efficacy and response kinetics. We find these natural substitutions impact GluR6 function less than would be expected from reverse mutations in other iGluRs. There was little effect of individual or combined mutations on glutamate potency, deactivation or desensitization kinetics. Altered recovery kinetics were seen that were greatest after combined mutations. Kainate potency and response kinetics were also unchanged in the mutants, whereas kainate efficacy was reduced in A518T and increased the T/S/T mutant relative glutamate. Notably, A518T and A689S mutation permitted AMPA to bind as a weak competitive antagonist and the effects of these mutations were additive. N721T mutation further enhanced AMPA binding, allowing AMPA to activate and fully desensitize the receptors. Alternative mutations altering side chain length at position 518 produced far greater changes in glutamate affinity and response kinetics than did the natural mutations. We conclude that these nonconserved residues in GluR6 define the size of the agonist-binding pocket, exerting a steric influence on the bound agonist and the extent of binding-domain closure that can influence agonist potency, deactivation, desensitization and recovery kinetics.     

Ligand binding is a critical requirement for plasma membrane expression of heteromeric kainate receptors

Intracellular trafficking of ionotropic glutamate receptors is controlled by multiple discrete determinants in receptor subunits. Most such determinants have been localized to the cytoplasmic carboxyl-terminal domain, but other domains in the subunit proteins can play roles in modulating receptor surface expression. Here we demonstrate that formation of an intact glutamate binding site also acts as an additional quality-control check for surface expression of homomeric and heteromeric kainate receptors. A key ligand-binding residue in the KA2 subunit, threonine 675, was mutated to either alanine or glutamate, which eliminated affinity for the receptor ligands kainate and glutamate. We found that plasma membrane expression of heteromeric GluR6/KA2(T675A) or GluR6/KA2(T675E) kainate receptors was markedly reduced compared with wild-type GluR6/KA2 receptors in transfected HEK 293 and COS-7 cells and in cultured neurons. Surface expression of homomeric KA2 receptors lacking a retention/retrieval determinant (KA2-R/A) was also reduced upon mutation of Thr-675 and elimination of the ligand binding site. KA2 Thr-675 mutant subunits were able to co-assemble with GluR5 and GluR6 subunits and were degraded at the same rate as wild-type KA2 subunit protein. These results suggest that glutamate binding and associated conformational changes are prerequisites for forward trafficking of intracellular kainate receptors following multimeric assembly.     

Subtype-specific assembly of alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid receptor subunits is mediated by their n-terminal domains.

Glutamate receptors (GluR) are oligomeric protein complexes formed by the assembly of four or perhaps five subunits. The rules that govern the selectivity of this process are not well understood. Here, we expressed combinations of subunits from two related GluR subfamilies in COS7 cells, the alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid (AMPA) and kainate receptors. By co-immunoprecipitation experiments, we assessed the ability of AMPA receptor subunits to assemble into multimeric complexes. Subunits GluR1-4 associated with indistinguishable efficiency with each other, whereas the kainate receptor subunits GluR6 and 7 showed a much lower degree of association with GluR1. Using chimeric receptors and truncation fragments of subunits, we show that this assembly specificity is determined by N-terminal regions of these subunits and that the most N-terminal domain of GluR2 together with a membrane anchor efficiently associates with GluR1.     

A glutamate receptor channel with high affinity for domoate and kainate.

The non-NMDA family of glutamate receptors comprises a growing number of structurally related subunits (GluR-A to -D or -1 to -4; GluR-5, -6; KA-1). GluR-A to -D appear to constitute the major AMPA receptor subtypes but the functional and pharmacological characteristics of the other subunits are unresolved. Using a mammalian expression system we demonstrate here that homomeric GluR-5 receptors exhibit properties of a high affinity domoate (KD approximately 2 nM) and kainate (KD approximately 70 nM) binding site. For these receptors, the rank order of ligands competing with [3H]kainate binding was domoate much greater than quisqualate approximately glutamate much greater than AMPA approximately CNQX. The respective receptor channels were gated in decreasing order of sensitivity by domoate, kainate, glutamate and AMPA. In contrast to recombinantly expressed GluR-A to -D channels, currents elicited at GluR-5 receptor desensitize channels to all agonists. This property is characteristic of currents in peripheral neurons on sensory ganglia. These findings suggest the existence of at least two distinct types of non-NMDA receptor channels, both gated by AMPA and kainate, but differing in pharmacology and current properties.     

Stable Expression of Recombinant AMPA Receptor Subunits: Binding Affinities and Effects of Allosteric Modulators

Abstract: Homomeric AMPA (α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid)-type glutamate receptors (GluRs) were stably expressed in kidney cells from cDNAs encoding GluR1 flop, GluR2 flip, GluR2 flop, and GluR3 flop subunits. The recombinant receptors were of the expected size and showed functional properties in whole-cell recording as previously reported. [³H]AMPA binding to all subunits was increased to a similar extent by the chaotropic ion thiocyanate (SCN^?). Significant differences were found in the Scatchard plots, however, which were linear and of high affinity for GluR1 and -3 receptors (K_D values of 33 and 52 nM, respectively) but showed curvature for GluR2 receptors, indicating the presence of two components with distinct affinities. As with brain AMPA receptors, solubilization of GluR2 receptors reduced the number of lower-affinity sites and correspondingly increased the number of higher-affinity sites. The sulfhydryl reagent p-chloromercuriphenylsulfonic acid, which increases binding to brain receptors, produced only minor changes except in the case of GluR2 flip. These results indicate that GluR2, among the subunits examined here, most closely resembles the native AMPA receptors in brain membranes. [³H]AMPA binding was inhibited in a noncompetitive manner by two drugs that change the desensitization kinetics of the AMPA receptor. In agreement with physiological observations, the apparent affinity of cyclothiazide for GluR2 flip (EC₅₀ = 7 µM) was higher than that for receptors made of flop subunits (49–130 µM). In contrast, BDP-37, a member of the benzamide family of drugs, exhibited a lower potency for GluR2 flip (58 µM) than for any of the flop isoforms (18–40 µM). These results predict that the action of centrally active AMPA-receptor modulators varies across brain regions depending on their flip/flop composition.     

High- and Low-Affinity α-[3H]Amino-3-Hydroxy-5-Methylisoxazole-4-Propionic Acid ([3H]AMPA) Binding Sites Represent Immature and Mature Forms of AMPA Receptors and Are Composed of Differentially Glycosylated Subunits

Abstract: Quantitative α-[³H]amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-isoxazole-4-propionic acid ([³H]AMPA) binding autoradiography was performed on frozen-thawed sections from rat brain after preincubation at 0 or 35°C for 1 h. Preincubation at 35°C instead of 0°C resulted in a selective decrease of [³H]AMPA binding assayed at a low concentration of [³H]-AMPA (50 nM) and an enhancement of binding at a high concentration (500 nM). The decrease in [³H]AMPA binding after preincubation at 35°C was accompanied with the loss of the lighter organelles of P3 (microsomal) fractions. These organelles were found to contain a small subpopulation of AMPA/GluR receptors exhibiting a high affinity for [³H]AMPA(K_D～14 nM), whereas heavier organelles exhibited lower affinity for AMPA (K_D～190 nM). This small subpopulation of AMPA/GluR receptors contained almost exclusively a structurally distinct species of GluR2/3 subunits with an apparent molecular mass of 103.5 kDa (assessed with anti-GluR2/3, C-terminal antibodies). Experiments using two deglycosylating enzymes, N-glycopeptidase F and endoglycosidase H, clearly indicated that the 103.5-kDa species represented a partially unglycosylated form of GluR2/3 subunits containing the high-mannose type of oligosaccharide moiety, whereas receptors present in synaptosomal fractions were composed of subunits with complex oligosaccharides. A similar result was obtained by using an antibody recognizing the N-terminal domain of GluR2(4). The same enzymatic treatment indicated that GluR1 subunits also exhibited a partially glycosylated form. These data indicate that high-affinity [³H]AMPA binding sites represent nonsynaptic, intracellular membrane-bound AMPA receptors that differ from synaptic receptors by at least the glycosylation state of GluR2 (and GluR1) subunits. In addition, our results provide a relatively simple way of assessing changes in two spatially and structurally distinct [³H]AMPA binding/GluR sites.     

Ultrastructural localisation and differential agonist-induced regulation of AMPA and kainate receptors present at the presynaptic active zone and postsynaptic density

Activity-dependent changes in ionotropic glutamate receptors at the postsynaptic membrane are well established and this regulation plays a central role in the expression of synaptic plasticity. However, very little is known about the distributions and regulation of ionotropic receptors at presynaptic sites. To determine if presynaptic receptors are subject to similar regulatory processes we investigated the localisation and modulation of AMPA (GluR1, GluR2, GluR3) and kainate (GluR6/7, KA2) receptor subunits by ultrasynaptic separation and immunoblot analysis of rat brain synaptosomes. All of the subunits were enriched in the postsynaptic fraction but were also present in the presynaptic and non-synaptic synaptosome fractions. AMPA stimulation resulted in a marked decrease in postsynaptic GluR2 and GluR3 subunits, but an increase in GluR6/7. Conversely, GluR2 and GluR3 increased in the presynaptic fraction whereas GluR6/7 decreased. There were no significant changes in any of the compartments for GluR1. NMDA treatment decreased postsynaptic GluR1, GluR2 and GluR6/7 but increased presynaptic levels of these subunits. NMDA treatment did not evoke changes in GluR3 localisation. Our results demonstrate that presynaptic and postsynaptic subunits are regulated in opposite directions by AMPA and NMDA stimulation.     

Neosurugatoxin, a Specific Antagonist of Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors

Neosurugatoxin (NSTX) (3 nM-30 nM), recently isolated from the Japanese ivory mollusc (Babylonia japonica) exerted a potent antinicotinic action in the isolated guinea pig ileum. Specific [3H]nicotine binding to rat forebrain membranes was saturable, reversible, and of high affinity. Nicotinic cholinergic agonists exhibited a markedly greater affinity for [3H]nicotine binding sites than a muscarinic agonist, oxotremorine. Although alpha-bungarotoxin had no effect on [3H]nicotine binding, low concentrations (1 nM-1 microM) of NSTX inhibited [3H]nicotine binding in the forebrain membranes and its IC50 value was 69 +/- 6 nM. On the other hand, NSTX did not affect muscarinic receptor binding in the brain. These data indicate that NSTX may be of appreciable interest as a neurotoxin with a selective affinity for ganglionic nicotinic receptors.     

Glutamate-induced cobalt uptake elicited by kainate receptors in rat taste bud cells

Glutamate-induced cobalt uptake reveals non-N-methyl-D-aspartate (non-NMDA) glutamate receptors (GluRs) in rat taste bud cells. However, it is not known which type of non-NMDA glutamate receptors is involved. We used a cobalt staining technique combined with pharmacological tests for kainate or alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-isoxazole-propionic acid (AMPA) receptors and/or immunohistochemistry against subunits of GluRs to examine the presence of non-NMDA receptors in rat foliate tastebud cells. Cobalt uptake into taste cells was elicited by treating taste buds with glutamate, kainate or SYM 2081, a kainate receptor agonist. Treating taste buds with AMPA or fluorowillardiine did not stimulate significant cobalt uptake. Moreover, 6-cyano-7-nitro-quinoxaline-2, 3-dione significantly reduced cobalt staining elicited by glutamate or kainate receptor agonists, but SYM 2206, an AMPA receptor antagonist, did not. Immunohistochemistry against subunits of GluRs reveals GluR6 and KA1-like immunoreactivity. Moreover, most glutamate-induced cobalt-stained cells showed GluR6 and KA1-like immunoreactivity. These results suggest that glutamate-induced cobalt uptake in taste cells occurs mainly via kainate type GluRs.     

Solubilization, Characterization, and Partial Purification of α-Amino-3-Hydroxy-5-Methyl-4-Isoxazolepropionic Acid-, Quisqualate-, Kainate-Sensitive l-Glutamate Binding Sites from Porcine Brain Synaptic Junctions

L-[3H]Glutamate binding sites were solubilized from porcine brain synaptic junctions by Triton X-114 in the presence of KCl. The solubilized binding sites bound L-[3H]glutamate reversibly with KD and Bmax values of 1.48 +/- 0.18 microM and 178.2 +/- 15.9 pmol/mg of protein, respectively. These binding sites appeared to be integral membrane glycoproteins, with sugar moieties recognized by wheat germ agglutinin. A 49.3-fold purification of these binding sites was achieved by Triton X-114 solubilization, anion-exchange chromatography, and affinity chromatography using wheat germ agglutinin-Sepharose. The apparent molecular mass of the partially purified binding sites was 620 +/- 50 kDa. L-[3H]Glutamate bound to the solubilized preparation could be effectively displaced by agonists of non-N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) L-glutamate receptors but not by NMDA or alpha-amino-4-phosphonobutyrate. The rank order for the competitive ligands in displacing L-[3H]glutamate was: quisqualate greater than alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid greater than L-glutamate greater than kainate.     

Resolution, absolute stereochemistry, and enantiopharmacology of the GluR1-4 and GluR5 antagonist 2-amino-3-[5-tert-butyl-3-(phosphonomethoxy)-4-isoxazolyl]propionic acid

The phosphono amino acid, (RS)-2-amino-3-[5-tert-butyl-3-(phosphonomethoxy)-4-isoxazolyl+ ++]propio nic acid (ATPO), is a structural hybrid between the NMDA antagonist (RS)-2-amino-7-phosphonoheptanoic acid (AP7) and the AMPA and GluR5 agonist, (RS)-2-amino-3-(5-tert-butyl-3-hydroxy-4-isoxazolyl)propionic acid (ATPA). ATPO has been resolved into (S)-ATPO and (R)-ATPO using chiral HPLC, and the absolute stereochemistry of the two enantiomers was established by an X-ray crystallographic analysis of (R)-ATPO. (S)-ATPO and (R)-ATPO were characterized pharmacologically using rat brain membrane binding and electrophysiologically using the cortical wedge preparation as well as homo- or heteromeric GluR1-4, GluR5-6, and KA2 receptors expressed in Xenopus oocytes. (R)-ATPO was essentially inactive as an agonist or antagonist in all test systems. (S)-ATPO was an inhibitor of the binding of [(3)H]AMPA (IC(50) = 16 +/- 1 microM) and of [(3)H]-6-cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione ([(3)H]CNQX) (IC(50) = 1.8 +/- 0.2 microM), but was inactive in the [(3)H]kainic acid and the [(3)H]-(RS)-3-(2-carboxypiperazin-4-yl)propyl-1-phosphonic acid ([(3)H]CPP) binding assays. (S)-ATPO did not show detectable agonist effects at any of the receptors under study, but antagonized AMPA-induced depolarization in the cortical wedge preparation (IC(50) = 15 +/- 1 microM). (S)-ATPO also blocked kainic acid agonist effects at GluR1 (K(i) = 2.0 microM), GluR1+2 (K(i) = 3.6 microM), GluR3 (K(i) = 3.6 microM), GluR4 (K(i) = 6.7 microM), and GluR5 (K(i) = 23 microM), but was inactive at GluR6 and GluR6+KA2. Thus, although ATPO is a structural analog of AP7 neither (S)-ATPO nor (R)-ATPO are recognized by NMDA receptor sites.