Convective heat transfer coefficients in the circulation

Convective heat transfer in the vessels of the circulatory system is investigated numerically. In the modeling, account is taken of the non-Newtonian rheological properties of blood and the presence of a cell-depleted plasma layer at the vessel wall. The latter is found to produce a remarkable enhancement of the heat transfer rate in the small vessels, while the effects due to the rheological behavior of blood are comparatively low. A comparison with experimental data available in the open literature is finally attempted.     

Convective heat transfer characteristics of toothed leaves

Summary Model leaves were used to test the hypothesis that serrate leaves have more convective heat loss than entire leaves of the same average size. Convection coefficients were positively correlated with size of teeth, supporting the hypothesis. Experimental results were in close agreement with theoretical predictions, which assumed an inverse correlation between depth of serration and effective leaf dimension.Abbreviations A total surface area of model (cm²) - D characteristic dimension of model (cm) - h convection coefficient (cal cm^-2 min^{-1 o}K^-1) - I radiant energy flux (cal cm^-2 min^-1) - Q radiant energy absorbed by leaf (cal min^-1) - q_c convective heat transfer (cal min^-1) - q_e evaporative heat loss (cal min^-1) - q_k conductive heat loss (cal min^-1) - q_r radiative heat loss (cal min^-1) - T_a air temperature (^oK) - T₁ model temperature (^oK) - V wind speed (m s^-1) - emissivity - Stefan-Boltzmann constant (8.130x10^-11 cal min^-1 cm^{-2 o}K^-4)     

Convective and radiative heat transfer coefficients for individual human body segments

 Human thermal physiological and comfort models will soon be able to simulate both transient and spatial inhomogeneities in the thermal environment. With this increasing detail comes the need for anatomically specific convective and radiative heat transfer coefficients for the human body. The present study used an articulated thermal manikin with 16 body segments (head, chest, back, upper arms, forearms, hands, pelvis, upper legs, lower legs, feet) to generate radiative heat transfer coefficients as well as natural- and forced-mode convective coefficients. The tests were conducted across a range of wind speeds from still air to 5.0 m/s, representing atmospheric conditions typical of both indoors and outdoors. Both standing and seated postures were investigated, as were eight different wind azimuth angles. The radiative heat transfer coefficient measured for the whole-body was 4.5 W/m² per K for both the seated and standing cases, closely matching the generally accepted whole-body value of 4.7 W/m² per K. Similarly, the whole-body natural convection coefficient for the manikin fell within the mid-range of previously published values at 3.4 and 3.3 W/m² per K when standing and seated respectively. In the forced convective regime, heat transfer coefficients were higher for hands, feet and peripheral limbs compared to the central torso region. Wind direction had little effect on convective heat transfers from individual body segments. A general-purpose forced convection equation suitable for application to both seated and standing postures indoors was h _c=10.3v ^0.6 for the whole-body. Similar equations were generated for individual body segments in both seated and standing postures. Received: 21 May 1996/Accepted: 27 November 1996     

Convective heat transfer from a nude body under calm conditions: assessment of the effects of walking with a thermal manikin

The present experimental work is dedicated to the analysis of the effect of walking on the thermal insulation of the air layer (I _a ) and on the convective heat transfer coefficients (h _conv ) of the human body. Beyond the standing static posture, three step rates were considered: 20, 30 and 45 steps/min. This corresponds to walking speeds of approximately 0.23, 0.34 and 0.51 m/s, respectively. The experiments took place in a climate chamber with an articulated thermal manikin with 16 independent parts. The indoor environment was controlled through the inner wall temperatures since the objective of the tests was restricted to the influence of the walking movements under calm conditions. Five set points were selected: 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30°C, and the operative temperature within the test chamber varied between 11.9 and 29.6°C. The highest and lowest I _a values obtained were equal to 0.87 and 0.71 clo, respectively, and the reduction in insulation due to walking ranged between 9.8 and 11.5%. The convective coefficients (h _conv ) for the whole body and for the different body segments were also determined for each step rate. In the case of the whole body, for the standing static reference posture, the mean value of h _conv was equal to 3.3 W/m²°C and a correlation [Nu = Nu(Gr)] for natural convection is also presented in good agreement with previous results. For the other postures, the values of h _conv were equal to 3.7, 3.9 and 4.2 W/m²°C, respectively for 20, 30 and 45 steps/min.     

CFTR directly mediates nucleotide-regulated glutathione flux

Studies have shown that expression of cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) is associated with enhanced glutathione (GSH) efflux from airway epithelial cells, implicating a role for CFTR in the control of oxidative stress in the airways. To define the mechanism underlying CFTR-associated GSH flux, we studied wild-type and mutant CFTR proteins expressed in Sf9 membranes, as well as purified and reconstituted CFTR. We show that CFTR-expressing membrane vesicles mediate nucleotide-activated GSH flux, which is disrupted in the R347D pore mutant, and in the Walker A K464A and K1250A mutants. Further, we reveal that purified CFTR protein alone directly mediates nucleotide-dependent GSH flux. Interestingly, although ATP supports GSH flux through CFTR, this activity is enhanced in the presence of the non-hydrolyzable ATP analog AMP-PNP. These findings corroborate previous suggestions that CFTR pore properties can vary with the nature of the nucleotide interaction. In conclusion, our data demonstrate that GSH flux is an intrinsic function of CFTR and prompt future examination of the role of this function in airway biology in health and disease.     

Calorimetry with heat flux transducers: comparison with a suit calorimeter

Regional and total body heat loss rates of human subjects at rest were measured simultaneously by means of an array of heat flux transducers and with a tube suit calorimeter. Conditions ranged from thermal comfort to strong cooling. A high degree of correlation was found between heat loss rates determined by the two independent techniques. For the head and arms, the transducer array system measured less heat loss than the suit. For the torso and legs, measurements by the two methods were equivalent. For the whole body, the transducer system yielded a heat loss rate 87% of the suit calorimeter value.     

Linker region of a halobacterial transducer protein interacts directly with its sensor retinal protein

pHtrII, a pharaonis halobacterial transducer protein, possesses two transmembrane helices and forms a signaling complex with pharaonis phoborhodopsin (ppR, also called pharaonis sensory rhodopsin II, NpSRII) within the halobacterial membrane. This complex transmits a light signal to the sensory system located in the cytoplasm. It has been suggested that the linker region connecting the transmembrane region and the methylation region of pHtrII is important for binding to ppR and subsequent photosignal transduction. In this study, we present evidence to suggest that the linker region itself interacts directly with ppR in addition to the interaction in the membrane region. An in vitro pull-down assay revealed that the linker region bound to ppR, and its dissociation constant (K(D)) was estimated to be approximately 10 microM using isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC). Solution NMR analyses showed that ppR interacted with the linker region of pHtrII (pHtrII(G83)(-)(Q149)) and resulted in the broadening of many peaks, indicating structural changes within this region. These results suggest that the pHtrII linker region interacts directly with ppR. There was no demonstrable interaction between the C-terminal region of ppR (ppR(Gly224)(-)(His247)) and either the linker region (pHtrII(G83)(-)(Q149)) or the transmembrane region (pHtrII(M1)(-)(E114)) of pHtrII. On the basis of the NMR, CD, and photochemical data, we discuss the structural changes and role of the linker region of pHtrII in relation to photosignal transduction.     

Otoferlin is a calcium sensor that directly regulates SNARE-mediated membrane fusion

Otoferlin is a large multi-C2 domain protein proposed to act as a calcium sensor that regulates synaptic vesicle exocytosis in cochlear hair cells. Although mutations in otoferlin have been associated with deafness, its contribution to neurotransmitter release is unresolved. Using recombinant proteins, we demonstrate that five of the six C2 domains of otoferlin sense calcium with apparent dissociation constants that ranged from 13-25 μM; in the presence of membranes, these apparent affinities increase by up to sevenfold. Using a reconstituted membrane fusion assay, we found that five of the six C2 domains of otoferlin stimulate membrane fusion in a calcium-dependent manner. We also demonstrate that a calcium binding-deficient form of the C2C domain is incapable of stimulating membrane fusion, further underscoring the importance of calcium for the protein's function. These results demonstrate for the first time that otoferlin is a calcium sensor that can directly regulate soluble N-ethyl-maleimide sensitive fusion protein attachment protein receptor-mediated membrane fusion reactions.     

Errors in heat flux measurements due to the thermal resistance of heat flux disks

Questions have been raised regarding the effect of the thermal resistance of heat flux transducers (HFTs) on the thermal flux from the skin. A model capable of simulating a large range of "tissue" insulation (variable-R model) was used to study the effect of the underlying tissue insulation on the relative error in heat flux due to the thermal resistance of the HFTs. The data show that the deviation from the true value of heat flux increases as the insulation of the underlying tissue decreases (r = 0.99, P less than 0.001). The underestimation of the heat flux through the skin measured by an HFT is minimal when the device is used on vasoconstricted skin in cool subjects (3-13% error) but becomes important when used during vasodilation in warm subjects (29-35% error) and even more important on metallic-skin mannequins (greater than 60% error).     

Partitioning of latent heat flux at a northern peatland

The partitioning of latent heat flux (Q_E) to vascular plant and moss surface components was assessed for a Sphagnum-dominated bog with a hummock–hollow surface having a sparse canopy of low shrubs. Results from porometry and eddy covariance measurements of Q_E showed evaporation from the moss surface ranged from greater than 50% of total Q_E early in the growing season to less than 20% after a dry period toward the end of the growing season. Both soil moisture and vapour pressure deficit (D_a) affected this partitioning with drier moss and peat, lower water table, and smaller D_a all reducing moss Q_E. Daily maximum moss Q_E ranged from greater than 200 W m⁻² early in the growing season to less than 100 W m⁻² during a dry period. In contrast, vascular contribution to total Q_E increased over the season from a daily maximum of about 150 W m⁻² to 250 W m⁻² due to increase in leaf area by leaf replacement and emergence and to drying of the moss surface. Porometry results showed average daily maximum conductance from bog shrubs was near 8 mm s⁻¹. These conductance values were smaller than those reported for vascular plants from more nutrient-rich wetlands. The effect of increases in D_a on vascular Q_E were moderated by decreases in stomatal conductance. At constant available energy, vascular leaf conductance was reduced by as much as 2 mm s⁻¹ and moss surface conductance was enhanced by up to 3 mm s⁻¹ by large D_a. Considering vascular and non-vascular water transport characteristics and frequency of water table position and given the observed variations of Q_E partitioning with water table location and moss and peat water content, it is suggested that modelling efforts focus on how dry hummocks and wet hollows each contribute to Q_E, especially as related to D_a and soil moisture dynamics.     

1,2-diacyl-phosphatidylcholine flip-flop measured directly by sum-frequency vibrational spectroscopy

Sum-frequency vibrational spectroscopy (SFVS) is used to measure the intrinsic rate of lipid flip-flop for 1,2-dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DMPC), 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DPPC), and 1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DSPC) in planar-supported lipid bilayers (PSs). Asymmetric PSLBs were prepared using the Langmuir-Blodgett/Langmuir-Schaefer method by placing a perdeuterated lipid analog in one leaflet of the PSLB. SFVS was used to directly measure the asymmetric distribution of the native lipid within the membrane by measuring the decay in the CH3 v(s) intensity at 2875 cm(-1) with time and as a function of temperature. An average activation energy of 220 kJ/mol for the translocation of DMPC, DPPC, and DSPC was determined. A decrease in alkyl chain length resulted in a substantial increase in the rate of flip-flop manifested as an increase in the Arrhenius preexponential factor. The effect of lipid labeling was investigated by measuring the exchange of 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine-n,n-Dimethyl-n-(2',2',6',6'-tetramethyl-4'-piperidyl) (TEMPO-DPPC). The rate of TEMPO-DPPC flip-flop was an order-of-magnitude slower compared to DPPC. An activation energy of 79 kJ/mol was measured which is comparable to that previously measured by electron spin resonance. The results of this study illustrate how SFVS can be used to directly measure lipid flip-flop without the need for a fluorescent or spin-labeled lipid probe, which can significantly alter the rate of lipid translocation.     

ELF-magnetic flux densities measured in a city environment in summer and winter

Epidemiological studies have indicated a connection between extremely low frequency magnetic flux densities above 0.4 microT (time weighted average) and childhood leukemia risks. This conclusion is based mainly on indoor exposure measurements. We therefore regarded it important to map outdoor magnetic flux densities in public areas in Trondheim, Norway. Because of seasonal power consumption variations, the fields were measured during both summer and winter. Magnetic flux density was mapped 1.0 m above the ground along 17 km of pavements in downtown Trondheim. The spectrum was measured at some spots and the magnetic flux density emanated mainly from the power frequency of 50 Hz. In summer less than 4% of the streets showed values exceeding 0.4 microT, increasing to 29% and 34% on cold and on snowy winter days, respectively. The average levels were 0.13 microT (summer), 0.85 microT (winter, cold), and 0.90 microT (winter, snow), with the highest recorded value of 37 microT. High spot measurements were usually encountered above underground transformer substations. In winter electric heating of pavements also gave rise to relatively high flux densities. There was no indication that the ICNIRP basic restriction was exceeded. It would be of interest to map the flux density situation in other cities and towns with a cold climate.     

Plant temperatures and heat flux in a Sonoran Desert ecosystem

Summary In the extreme desert environment the potential energy load is high, consequently high temperatures might be a limiting factor for plant survival. Field measurements of plant temperatures in a Sonoran Desert ecosystem were made using fine thermocouples. Temperatures of six desert species were measured: Opuntia engelmannii, Opuntia bigelovii, Opuntia acanthocarpa, Echinocereus engelmannii, Larrea tridentata and Franseria deltoidea. Daily temperature profiles were used to compare the different responses of cacti and shrubs to the desert heat load and also to compare spring and summer responses. Leaf temperature of shrubs was at or near air temperature during both the mild, spring season and the hotter dry season. The cacti, on the other hand, absorbed and stored heat, thus temperatures were often above air temperature. The energy absorbed is determined largely by plant orientation and surface area exposed to the sun. Actual energy absorbed by the plants was estimated from energy diagrams.The flat stem pads of Opuntia engelmannii plants are oriented to receive maximum sunlight without long periods of continuous heating. Opuntia bigelovii spines reflect and absorb much of the environmental energy load, thereby protecting the thick, succulent stems from overheating. The smaller stems of Opuntia acanthocarpa dissipate heat more effectively by their large surface area exposed to convective air currents. Leaves on desert shrubs remain nearer to air temperature than do succulent stems of cacti, because their very large surface to volume ratio allows them to dissipate much heat by convection.     

Modelling heat transfer in a bone-cement-prosthesis system

The heat transfer in a general bone-cement-prosthesis system was modelled. A quantitative understanding of the heat transfer and the polymerization kinetics in the system is necessary because injury of the bone tissue and the mechanical properties of the cement have been suggested to be effected by the thermal and chemical history of the system. The mathematical model of the heat transfer was based on first principles from polymerization kinetics and heat transfer, rather than certain in vitro observed properties, which has been the common approach. Our model was valid for general three-dimensional geometries and an arbitrary bone cement consisting of an initiator and monomer. The model was simulated for a cross-section of a hip with a potential femoral stem prosthesis and for a cement similar to Palacos R. The simulations were conducted by using the finite element method. These simulations showed that this general model described an auto accelerating heat production and a residual monomer concentration, which are two phenomena suggested to cause bone tissue damage and effect the mechanical properties of the cement.     

Genotoxicity sensor response correlated with DNA nucleobase damage rates measured by LC-MS

Responses from "reagentless" DNA-based electrochemical toxicity sensors to DNA alkylating agents styrene oxide (SO), diepoxybutane (DEB), and methyl methanesulfonate (MMS) were compared to formation rates of total alkylated nucleobases in DNA measured by LC-UV-MS. Sensors utilized a catalytic metallopolymer in DNA films previously exposed to the damage agents. To achieve adequate sensitivity, LC-UV-MS analyses were done on DNA in solution reacted with the damage agents, and subsequently hydrolyzed to nucleosides with enzymes. Sensor response correlated well with nucleobase-adduct formation rates obtained by the molecule-specific analyses. Results confirm that the metallopolymer-DNA film sensors can be used to estimate relative DNA damage rates from nucleobase adduct-forming chemicals. Results from both methods correlated well with animal genotoxicity as estimated by TDL(o) values, the lowest dose producing carcinogenicity, in mice and rats. These sensors should be useful for rapid, inexpensive screening of moderately and severely genotoxic new chemicals.