Olduvai Bed I post-cranial fossils: A reassessment

New fossil specimens can be interpreted as strong indications that there were two Plio-Pleistocene hominid post-cranial morphotypes. This new evidence may alter the functional interpretations placed on the important specimens, OH 8 and OH 10 from Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. When these interpretations are critically examined there is now doubt that the OH 8 foot belongs to Homo and that the OH 10 terminal plalanx is necessarily part of a functional limb complex like that of modern Man.     

A New Horned Crocodile from the Plio-Pleistocene Hominid Sites at Olduvai Gorge,Tanzania

Background

The fossil record reveals surprising crocodile diversity in the Neogene of Africa, but relationships with their living relatives and the biogeographic origins of the modern African crocodylian fauna are poorly understood. A Plio-Pleistocene crocodile from Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, represents a new extinct species and shows that high crocodylian diversity in Africa persisted after the Miocene. It had prominent triangular “horns” over the ears and a relatively deep snout, these resemble those of the recently extinct Malagasy crocodile Voay robustus, but the new species lacks features found among osteolaemines and shares derived similarities with living species of Crocodylus.

Methodology/Principal Findings

The holotype consists of a partial skull and skeleton and was collected on the surface between two tuffs dated to approximately 1.84 million years (Ma), in the same interval near the type localities for the hominids Homo habilis and Australopithecus boisei. It was compared with previously-collected material from Olduvai Gorge referable to the same species. Phylogenetic analysis places the new form within or adjacent to crown Crocodylus.

Conclusions/Significance

The new crocodile species was the largest predator encountered by our ancestors at Olduvai Gorge, as indicated by hominid specimens preserving crocodile bite marks from these sites. The new species also reinforces the emerging view of high crocodylian diversity throughout the Neogene, and it represents one of the few extinct species referable to crown genus Crocodylus.     

Fingerprinting facies of the Tuff IF marker,with implications for early hominin palaeoecology,Olduvai Gorge,Tanzania

The top of Tuff IF marks the upper boundary of the Plio-/Pleistocene Bed I succession exposed in Olduvai Gorge, NE Tanzania, a tephrostratigraphic interval that is well known for remarkable Oldowan archaeological and vertebrate fossil assemblages, including early hominins. Geochemically, Tuff IF is characterized by a relatively consistent silica-undersaturated trachytic to phonolitic composition that relates both in terms of numerical ages (1.79 Ma) and compositional constraints to Olmoti volcano, located 22–38 km E of Olduvai Gorge.Measured Tuff IF sections are characterized by a thick unwelded pyroclastic flow in proximal settings and a succession of surges and ashfalls that interfingers with fluvio-lacustrine deposits of the Olduvai Basin in the medial to distal settings. Only in those areas with a relatively low topographic gradient, in distal reaches and beyond the toe of an Olmoti-sourced volcaniclastic fan, did the Tuff IF marker develop a typical threefold subdivision comprising: (1) primary surges and minor fallout, (2) reworked pumice units as lateral correlatives of proximally emplaced pyroclastic flows and (3) a succession of mass flows in conjunction with aeolian and fluvially reworked units.The pyroclastic marker unit is thus highly heterogeneous with regard to its vertical and lateral facies architecture and this has immediate effects on its preservation potential and in situ burial of fossils and stone artifacts. Even though the volcanically-related environmental perturbations were probably more severe at the eastern lake margin, the evidence for at least temporary freshwater sources and trees suggests environments conducive to hominin activities, but not during emplacement of Tuff IF pyroclastic flows and surges. This inference is supported by the presence of rich Oldowan stone artifact assemblages immediately preceding and following the deposition of Tuff IF, but only extremely sparse archaeological traces from one site in Tuff IF, restricted to the upper, fluvially reworked portion of Tuff IF.Tuff IF facies record the maximum of a regressive (drying) cycle that correlates with regional marine arid indicators. An ecological crisis covering ～ 2000–3500 a of time during Tuff IF deposition resulted not only from the lethal effects of explosive volcanism but also from its coincidence with a pronounced period of climate induced drought. These combined effects appear to have made at least the eastern basin uninhabitable by hominins and other vertebrates for most of the time during which Tuff IF accumulated.     

Grain-size controls on the occurrence of bioturbation

Grain size and grain-size related stresses impart a significant influence on the ichnological character of marginal-marine deposits. This is evident on the New Brunswick coastline of the Bay of Fundy, Canada, where three coarse-grained marginal-marine deposits are studied to assess grain-size controls on the occurrence and type of bioturbation. Firm mud and sand substrates exhibit the greatest diversity and density of bioturbation (i.e., bioturbation intensity). The types of organisms colonizing sands and firm-mud substrates are variable; however, the resultant trace assemblages are similar. Thixotropic muds exhibit significantly reduced trace diversity and density relative to firm mud, reflecting the additional stress placed on the organisms by the relatively soupy consistency of the sediment. A significant change in the trace assemblage occurs when sediment caliber passes the gradational sand—fine gravel boundary.Four main conclusions can be drawn from this study. First, for mixed sand and gravel, fine gravel, and coarse-gravel deposits, the degree of bioturbation (diversity ^? density) decreases more rapidly onshore (across the intertidal zone) than is noted in sand or mud deposits. Second, there is a decrease in the degree of bioturbation with increasing grain size for substrates composed of sand-sized and larger clasts. Third, burrows in gravels tend to be lined and/or robust, likely to maintain a stable environment within the burrow. Fourth, in coarse-gravel substrates or substrates with a significant component of coarse gravel, burrows are developed between the clasts and tend to be more permanent structures (than those developed in sand or mud), which are generally continuously occupied.The degree of burrowing noted in these modern gravel deposits contrasts with the relative paucity of biogenic structures reported in conglomerates preserved in the rock record. Based on the intensity of burrowing observed in the gravels, we hypothesize that ancient marginal-marine conglomerates are likely bioturbated, but that these burrows are likely distorted during burial and compaction.     

The Ngorongoro Volcanic Highland and its relationships to volcanic deposits at Olduvai Gorge and East African Rift volcanism

The Ngorongoro Volcanic Highland (NVH), situated adjacent and to the east of Olduvai Gorge in northern Tanzania, is the source of the immense quantities of lava, ignimbrite, air fall ash, and volcaniclastic debris that occur interbedded in the Plio-Pleistocene sedimentary deposits in the Laetoli and Olduvai areas. These volcanics have proven crucial to unraveling stratigraphic correlations, the age of these successions, the archaeological and paleontological remains, as well as the source materials from which the bulk of the stone tools were manufactured. The NVH towers some 2,000 m above the Olduvai and Laetoli landscapes, affecting local climate, run-off, and providing varying elevation - climate controlled ecosystem, habitats, and riparian corridors extending into the Olduvai and Laetoli lowlands. The NVH also plays a crucial role in addressing the genesis and history of East African Rift (EAR) magmatism in northern Tanzania.In this contribution, we provide age and petrochemical compositions of the major NVH centers: Lemagurut, basalt to benmorite, 2.4-2.2 Ma; Satiman, tephrite to phonolite, 4.6-3.5 Ma; Oldeani, basalt to trachyandesite, 1.6-1.5 Ma; Ngorongoro, basalt to rhyolite, 2.3-2.0 Ma; Olmoti, basalt to trachyte, 2.0-1.8 Ma; Embagai, nephelinite to phonolite, 1.2-0.6 Ma; and Engelosin, phonolite, 3-2.7 Ma. We then discuss how these correlate in time and composition with volcanics preserved at Olduvai Gorge. Finally, we place this into context with our current understanding as to the eruptive history of the NVH and relationship to East African Rift volcanism.     

Disentangling Early Stone Age palimpsests: determining the functional independence of hominid- and carnivore-derived portions of archaeofaunas

Determining the extent to which hominid- and carnivore-derived components of fossil bone palimpsests formed independently of each other can provide valuable information to paleoanthropologists interested in reconstructing the foraging adaptations of hominids. Because stone tool cutmarks, hammerstone percussion marks, and carnivore tooth marks are usually only imparted on bone during nutrient extraction from a carcass, these bone surface modifications are particularly amenable to the types of analyses that might meet this goal. This study compares the percentage of limb bone specimens that preserve evidence of both hominid- and carnivore-imparted bone damage from actualistic control samples and several Plio-Pleistocene archaeofaunas, including new data from Swartkrans Member 3 (South Africa). We argue that this procedure, which elucidates the degree of hominid-carnivore independence in assemblage formation, will allow researchers to extract for focused analyses high integrity components (hominid and carnivore) from presumably low integrity sites. Comparisons suggest that the hominid- and carnivore-derived components from sites in Olduvai Gorge Bed II (Tanzania), the ST Site Complex at Peninj (Tanzania), and Swartkrans Member 3 formed largely independent of each other, while data from the FLK 22 Zinjanthropus (FLK Zinj) site (Olduvai Gorge Bed I) indicate significant interdependence in assemblage formation. This contrast suggests that some Early Stone Age assemblages (e.g., the Olduvai Gorge Bed II sites, the Peninj ST Site Complex, and Swartkrans Member 3) are probably more useful than others (e.g., FLK Zinj) for assessing the maximal carcass-acquiring abilities of early hominids; in such assemblages as those in the former set, sole hominid-contribution is more confidently discerned and isolated for analysis than in assemblages such as FLK Zinj.     

A revised stratigraphic framework for Olduvai Gorge Bed I based on tuff geochemistry

Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania has rich records of Plio-Pleistocene fauna and flora, hominin fossils, and stone artifacts preserved between well-dated tephra layers (tuffs). Accurate correlation between sites in the two million year section is complicated by faulting, erosion, change in physical appearance of the tuffs, and quality of preservation. Traditional tuff geochemical techniques using glass cannot be applied because of poor glass preservation, and previous physical mapping has led to miscorrelations in Bed I. A new approach, using a combination of glass and mineral compositions (feldspar, augite, hornblende, and oxides) produced successful geochemical fingerprints for all ten major Bed I (∼2.03-1.79 Ma) tuffs. These fingerprints make available a reliable means for correlating specific tuffs between the well-dated "Junction" sites, such as FLK and HWK, and less well-dated sites at the basin margins. The new correlations provide a high-resolution stratigraphic framework for Bed I and correct previous miscorrelations in the west of the basin. Olduvai Hominin 65, from western Olduvai, was recovered from a level between Tuff IC and the Ng’eju Tuff, and therefore dates to 1.79-1.84 Ma.     

Review of Japanese Cenozoic (Miocene–Modern) Vertebrate Tracks

One hundred and seventy three Cenozoic vertebrate track sites from Miocene to 1600 A.D have been reported in Japan. Three ichnofaunas can be recognized: a perissodactyl and artiodactyl ichnofauna in the Miocene, an artiodactyl and proboscidean ichnofauna in the Plio-Pleistocene, and human ichnofauna from about 900–800 B.C. to about 1400–1600 A.D. Track data indicate that a predominance of large vertebrates in fluvio-lacustrine environment in lowland changed from perissodactyls to proboscidean through Miocene to Plio-Pleistocene, and ancient people then occupied lowlands instead of large animals. Pes length of proboscidean tracks revealed temporal variation, and the relationship between proboscidean body sizes and tracks was observed. The Cenozoic Japanese proboscidean trackways can be distinguished on the basis of trackway width, as narrow- and wide-gauge, but the difference between of those narrow- and wide-gauge trackways probably indicates generic level differences. The Cenozoic Japanese bird tracks can be identified as four types: ?crane (Family Gruidae?), ?heron (Family Ardeidae?), ?stork (Family Ciconiidae?), and ?shorebird tracks.     

Microbial diversity, tolerance, and biodegradation potential of urban wetlands with different input regimes

Though microbial transformations are the primary mechanism of contaminant attenuation in wetlands, much remains to be known about microbial communities in urban wetlands. In this study, the microbial communities from urban wetlands with different runoff regimes (i.e., a contaminated remnant wetland, a constructed wetland, and a remnant wetland) were assessed for their capacity to attenuate and tolerate typical urban runoff pollutants. Results from denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis of 16S rRNA genes showed relatively high similarity in community composition among the wetlands. Community-level physiological profiles had similar results but exhibited within-site variation in both the contaminated remnant and remnant wetlands. All wetland communities were less tolerant to copper than 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid; however, the contaminated remnant wetland had the highest tolerance. All study wetlands had a limited capacity to biodegrade model chlorinated aromatic compounds (e.g., 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid and 3-chlorobenzoate). Though having different input regimes and contaminant exposure histories, the study wetlands were generally similar with respect to microbial community diversity and function. Additionally, the generally low capacity for these wetlands to biodegrade mobile chlorinated organic contaminants offers preliminary insight into the limited ecosystem services these wetlands may provide in urban environments.     

浙江秀山岛湿地生态系统初探

秀山岛位于东海舟山渔场海域,岛上有大片的湿地资源分布,其滨海部分与舟山渔场的生物资源特别是渔业生物资源密切联系,具有罕见的海岛特色。海岛的特殊地理位置为秀山岛湿地赋予了独特的生态特征。秀山岛湿地内动植物资源丰富,生物多样性高,共有植物种类300余种,栖息的鸟类共有26个科108种,包括国家一级保护动物东方自鹳（Ixobrychus minutus）。还有国家二级保护动物獐（Hydropotes inermis）等珍贵动物自然栖息。秀山岛湿地包括潮下带湿地（浅海湾）、潮间带湿地（泥滩、芦苇丛）、潮上带湿地（咸水沼泽、半咸水沼泽）、异化湿地（盐田、养殖池、稻田）等几个紧密联系的部分。具有多方面的生态功能。由于对湿地的生态功能重视不够,湿地生态系统破碎化严重。目前在秀山岛湿地已经建立了湿地自然保护区,湿地生态系统得到了较好的发展。     

The evolution of early vertebrate photoreceptors

Meeting the challenge of sampling an ancient aquatic landscape by the early vertebrates was crucial to their survival and would establish a retinal bauplan to be used by all subsequent vertebrate descendents. Image-forming eyes were under tremendous selection pressure and the ability to identify suitable prey and detect potential predators was thought to be one of the major drivers of speciation in the Early Cambrian. Based on the fossil record, we know that hagfishes, lampreys, holocephalans, elasmobranchs and lungfishes occupy critical stages in vertebrate evolution, having remained relatively unchanged over hundreds of millions of years. Now using extant representatives of these ‘living fossils’, we are able to piece together the evolution of vertebrate photoreception. While photoreception in hagfishes appears to be based on light detection and controlling circadian rhythms, rather than image formation, the photoreceptors of lampreys fall into five distinct classes and represent a critical stage in the dichotomy of rods and cones. At least four types of retinal cones sample the visual environment in lampreys mediating photopic (and potentially colour) vision, a sampling strategy retained by lungfishes, some modern teleosts, reptiles and birds. Trichromacy is retained in cartilaginous fishes (at least in batoids and holocephalans), where it is predicted that true scotopic (dim light) vision evolved in the common ancestor of all living gnathostomes. The capacity to discriminate colour and balance the tradeoff between resolution and sensitivity in the early vertebrates was an important driver of eye evolution, where many of the ocular features evolved were retained as vertebrates progressed on to land.     

Livestock disturbances in Mediterranean temporary ponds: A mesocosm experiment with sheep manure and simulated trampling

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中国濒危鱼类、两栖爬行类和哺乳类的地理分布格局与优先保护区域——基于《中国濒危动物红皮书》的分析

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Vulnerability, livelihood assets and institutional dynamics in the management of wetlands in Lake Victoria watershed basin

This paper uses data from 600 households in the Lake Victoria watershed in Tanzania, Kenya, and Uganda to analyze the effects of vulnerabilities and shocks on the management and exploitation of wetlands within the context of agricultural activities and high poverty levels. A multinomial logit model is used to determine variables that influence the perception of wetlands degradation, while a tobit model is used to establish the determinants of willingness to pay for wetland conservation and the imputed value of wetland product extracts. The model results show that although the perception of wetland degradation is modest, it is influenced by attributes of social capital. Variables such as floods, diseases and droughts significantly influence the households’ willingness to pay for wetland conservation. Land size and ownership, education level and household size all influence households’ likelihood to actively engage in wetland resource exploitation and willingness to pay for its conservation. The implications of these results hinge on measures that would moderate the effects of shocks, mobilize collective action, and improve physical infrastructure within the context of sustainable wetland resource use.     

Facies control on lower Cambrian wrinkle structure development and paleoenvironmental distribution, southern Great Basin, United States

Assessing the role that physical processes play in restricting microbial mat distribution has been difficult due to the primary control of bioturbation in the modern ocean. To isolate and determine the physical controls on microbial mat distribution and preservation, a time in Earth’s history must be examined when bioturbation was not the primary control. This restricts the window of observation primarily to the Precambrian and Cambrian, which precede the development of typical Phanerozoic and modern levels of bioturbation. Lower Cambrian strata of the southern Great Basin, United States, record the widespread development of seafloor microbial mats in shallow shelf and nearshore settings. These microbial mats are recorded by wrinkle structures, which consist of millimeter-scale ridges and sinuous troughs that represent the former presence of a surface microbial mat. Wrinkle structures within these strata occur exclusively within heterolithic deposits of the offshore transition, i.e., between fair-weather wave base and storm wave base, and within heterolithic tidal-flat deposits. Wrinkle structures are not preserved in siltstone-dominated offshore deposits or amalgamated shoreface sandstones. The preservation of wrinkle structures within these environments is due to: (1) the development of microbial mats atop clean quartz-rich sands for growth and casting of the structures; and (2) the draping of the microbial mat by finer-grained sediment to inhibit erosion. The exclusion from offshore deposits may be due to a lack of sufficient sunlight, whereas the restriction from the shoreface is likely due to the amalgamation of proximal tempestites, resulting in the erosion of any incipient microbial mat development.     

Lasanius,an exceptionally preserved Silurian jawless fish from Scotland

The fossil record of non-biomineralizing, soft-bodied taxa is our only direct evidence of the early history of vertebrates. A robust reconstruction of the affinities of these taxa is critical to unlocking vertebrate origins and understanding the evolution of skeletal tissues, but these taxa invariably have unstable and poorly supported phylogenetic positions. At the cusp between mineralized bony vertebrates and entirely soft-bodied vertebrates is the enigmatic Lasanius, a purported anaspid from the Silurian of Scotland. Interpretations of its affinity and significance are conflicted, principally because of its poorly understood anatomy due to taphonomic distortion and loss of soft-tissues. Here we use an array of modern techniques to reassess the anatomy of Lasanius via a comprehensive study of 229 complete and partial specimens. A new reconstruction clarifies the identity and position of preserved features, including paired sensory organs, a notochord, and digestive tract, supporting the vertebrate affinities of this genus. SEM-EDS trace element mapping suggests a bone-like composition of mineralized parts, but finds no evidence for mineralized dermal armour. Phylogenetic analysis recovers Lasanius as an early stem-cyclostome, and subsequent analysis supports the rejection of alternative placements (such as stem-gnathostome). We highlight that while distinguishing between the early cyclostome and gnathostome condition is problematic, increasing confidence in the anatomy of key taxa, such as Lasanius, is vital for increased stability throughout the early vertebrate tree.     

Microgeographic countergradient variation in the wood frog, Rana sylvatica

Prior studies have shown that macrogeographic gradients in temperature associated with latitude and altitude can lead to countergradient patterns of variation in a number of taxa: individuals from colder environments are known to grow or develop faster than their conspecifics from warmer environments when placed in a common setting. In this study, I hypothesized that countergradient variation also is important at microgeographic scales. The wood frog, Rana sylvatica, breeds in open-canopied, temporary wetlands as well as those heavily shaded by vegetation. Shading leads to cooler thermal environments that are associated with embryonic development rates as much as 50% slower than those in unshaded wetlands. Wetlands with contrasting canopy environments are often found within tens or hundreds of meters of each other. In a common garden experiment, embryos from nearby natural wetlands displayed countergradient variation: individuals collected from shaded wetlands developed up to 12% faster than those collected from relatively unshaded wetlands. The results of this study suggest that the concept of countergradient variation may be extended to small scales of space. In addition, the rate and scale of vegetation dynamics (the agent of wetland shading) imply that divergence in development among residents of nearby wetlands may be relatively rapid, on the order of decades.     

Urban bat communities are affected by wetland size,quality, and pollution levels

Wetlands support unique biota and provide important ecosystem services. These services are highly threatened due to the rate of loss and relative rarity of wetlands in most landscapes, an issue that is exacerbated in highly modified urban environments. Despite this, critical ecological knowledge is currently lacking for many wetland‐dependent taxa, such as insectivorous bats, which can persist in urban areas if their habitats are managed appropriately. Here, we use a novel paired landscape approach to investigate the role of wetlands in urban bat conservation and examine local and landscape factors driving bat species richness and activity. We acoustically monitored bat activity at 58 urban wetlands and 35 nonwetland sites (ecologically similar sites without free‐standing water) in the greater Melbourne area, southeastern Australia. We analyzed bat species richness and activity patterns using generalized linear mixed‐effects models. We found that the presence of water in urban Melbourne was an important driver of bat species richness and activity at a landscape scale. Increasing distance to bushland and increasing levels of heavy metal pollution within the waterbody also negatively influenced bat richness and individual species activity. Areas with high levels of artificial night light had reduced bat species richness, and reduced activity for all species except those adapted to urban areas, such as the White‐striped free‐tailed bat (Austronomus australis). Increased surrounding tree cover and wetland size had a positive effect on bat species richness. Our findings indicate that wetlands form critical habitats for insectivorous bats in urban environments. Large, unlit, and unpolluted wetlands flanked by high tree cover in close proximity to bushland contribute most to the richness of the bat community. Our findings clarify the role of wetlands for insectivorous bats in urban areas and will also allow for the preservation, construction, and management of wetlands that maximize conservation outcomes for urban bats and possibly other wetland‐dependent and nocturnal fauna.