An efficient enzymatic Baeyer-Villiger oxidation by engineered Escherichia coli cells under non-growing conditions

Economical methods of supplying NADPH must be developed before biotransformations involving this cofactor can be considered for large-scale applications. We have studied the enzymatic Baeyer-Villiger oxidation of cyclohexanone as a model for this class of reactions and developed a simple approach that uses whole, non-growing Escherichia coli cells to provide high productivity (0.79 g epsilon-caprolactone/L/h = 18 micromol epsilon-caprolactone/min/g dcw) and an 88% yield. Glucose supplied the reducing equivalents for this process, and no exogenous cofactor was required. The volumetric productivity of non-growing cells was an order of magnitude greater than that achieved with growing cells of the same strain. Cells of an engineered E. coli strain that overexpresses Acinetobacter sp. cyclohexanone monooxygenase were grown under inducing conditions in rich medium until the entry to stationary phase; the subsequent cyclohexanone oxidation was carried out in minimal salts medium lacking a nitrogen source. After the biotransformation was complete, the lactone product was adsorbed to a solid support and recovered by washing with an organic solvent.     

Biotransformations with engineered E. coli cells expressing wild-type and mutant Baeyer–Villiger monooxygenases under non-growing conditions

The Escherichia coli (E. coli) overexpression systems of Baeyer–Villiger monooxygenases (BVMOs), cyclohexanone monooxygenase (CHMO) and cyclopentanone monooxygenase (CPMO) and their mutants derived from directed evolution were used as catalysts in oxidations of six 4-substituted cyclohexanones. The biotransformations were carried out with growing cells (standard screening conditions) and with non-growing cells. The surprising result is that several substrates that give negative results (non-acceptance) under the screening conditions, afford excellent conversions in the transformations under non-growing conditions. The new bioreagents for Baeyer–Villiger oxidations with divergent, high enantioselectivities reported here can be used in scaled-up fermentation under non-growing conditions.     

Mechanistic studies of cyclohexanone monooxygenase: chemical properties of intermediates involved in catalysis

Cyclohexanone monooxygenase (CHMO), a bacterial flavoenzyme, carries out an oxygen insertion reaction on cyclohexanone to form a seven-membered cyclic product, epsilon-caprolactone. The reaction catalyzed involves the four-electron reduction of O2 at the expense of a two-electron oxidation of NADPH and a two-electron oxidation of cyclohexanone to form epsilon-caprolactone. Previous studies suggested the participation of either a flavin C4a-hydroperoxide or a flavin C4a-peroxide intermediate during the enzymatic catalysis [Ryerson, C. C., Ballou, D. P., and Walsh, C. (1982) Biochemistry 21, 2644-2655]. However, there was no kinetic or spectral evidence to distinguish between these two possibilities. In the present work we used double-mixing stopped-flow techniques to show that the C4a-flavin-oxygen adduct, which is formed rapidly from the reaction of oxygen with reduced enzyme in the presence of NADP, can exist in two states. When the reaction is carried out at pH 7.2, the first intermediate is a flavin C4a-peroxide with maximum absorbance at 366 nm; this intermediate becomes protonated at about 3 s(-1) to form what is believed to be the flavin C4a-hydroperoxide with maximum absorbance at 383 nm. These two intermediates can be interconverted by altering the pH, with a pK(a) of 8.4. Thus, at pH 9.0 the flavin C4a-peroxide persists mainly in the deprotonated form. Further kinetic studies also demonstrated that only the flavin C4a-peroxide intermediate could oxygenate the substrate, cyclohexanone. The requirement in catalysis of the deprotonated flavin C4a-peroxide, a nucleophile, is consistent with a Baeyer-Villiger rearrangement mechanism for the enzymatic oxygenation of cyclohexanone. In the course of these studies, the Kd for cyclohexanone to the C4a-peroxyflavin form of CHMO was determined to be approximately 1 microM. The rate-determining step in catalysis was shown to be the release of NADP from the oxidized enzyme.     

Optimization of diaryl amine derivatives as kinesin spindle protein inhibitors

Structure–activity relationship studies of diaryl amine-type KSP inhibitors were carried out. Diaryl amine derivatives with a pyridine ring or urea group were less active when compared with the parent carboline and carbazole derivatives. Optimization studies of a lactam-fused diphenylamine-type KSP inhibitor revealed that the aniline NH group and 3-CF₃ phenyl group were indispensable for potent KSP inhibition. Modification with a seven-membered lactam-fused phenyl group and a 4-(trifluoromethyl)pyridin-2-yl group improved aqueous solubility while maintaining potent KSP inhibitory activity. From these studies, we identified novel diaryl amine-type KSP inhibitors with a favorable balance of potency and solubility.     

Monitoring of occupational exposure to cyclohexanone by diffusive sampling and urinalysis

The present study was initiated in order to identify the best marker of occupational exposure to cyclohexanone among cyclohexanone and its metabolites in urine. To examine if diffusive samplers are applicable to personal monitoring of exposure to cyclohexanone in workroom air, the performance of carbon cloth to adsorb cyclohexanone in air was studied by experimental exposure of the cloth to cyclohexanone at 5, 10, 25 or 50 ppm (i.e. 20, 40, 100 or 200 mg m-3) for up to 8 h. Cyclohexanone in the exposed cloth was extracted with carbon disulphide followed by gas chromatographic (GC) analysis. The cloth adsorbed cyclohexanone in proportion to the concentration (up to 50 ppm) and the duration (up to 8 h), and responded quantitatively to a 15 min exposure at 100 ppm. In a field survey, end-of-shift urine samples were collected from 24 factory workers occupationally exposed to cyclohexanone (up to 9 ppm) in combination with toluene and other solvents. Urine samples were also collected from 10 subjects with no occupational exposure to solvents. The urine samples were treated with acid or an enzyme preparation for hydrolysis, and extracted with dichloromethane or ethyl acetate. The extracts were analysed by GC for cyclohexanone, cyclohexanol, and trans- and cis-isomers of 1,2- and 1,4-cyclohexanediol. Both cyclohexanol and trans-1,2-cyclohexanediol in urine correlated significantly with time-weighted average intensity of exposure to cyclohexanone. Although trans -1,4-isomer was also excreted, its quantitative relation with cyclohexanone exposure could not be established, because the solvent extraction rate was low and unstable. Excretion of cis-isomers was not confirmed. The two analytes, cyclohexanol and trans-1,2-cyclohexanediol, appeared to be equally valid as exposure markers, but the latter may be superior to the former in the sense that it is sensitive enough to separate the exposed from the non-exposed at 1 ppm or less cyclohexanone exposure.     

Monitoring of occupational exposure to cyclohexanone by diffusive sampling and urinalysis

The present study was initiated in order to identify the best marker of occupational exposure to cyclohexanone among cyclohexanone and its metabolites in urine. To examine if diffusive samplers are applicable to personal monitoring of exposure to cyclohexanone in workroom air, the performance of carbon cloth to adsorb cyclohexanone in air was studied by experimental exposure of the cloth to cyclohexanone at 5, 10, 25 or 50 ppm (i.e. 20, 40, 100 or 200 mg m-3) for up to 8 h. Cyclohexanone in the exposed cloth was extracted with carbon disulphide followed by gas chromatographic (GC) analysis. The cloth adsorbed cyclohexanone in proportion to the concentration (up to 50 ppm) and the duration (up to 8 h), and responded quantitatively to a 15 min exposure at 100 ppm. In a field survey, end-of-shift urine samples were collected from 24 factory workers occupationally exposed to cyclohexanone (up to 9 ppm) in combination with toluene and other solvents. Urine samples were also collected from 10 subjects with no occupational exposure to solvents. The urine samples were treated with acid or an enzyme preparation for hydrolysis, and extracted with dichloromethane or ethyl acetate. The extracts were analysed by GC for cyclohexanone, cyclohexanol, and trans- and cis-isomers of 1,2- and 1,4-cyclohexanediol. Both cyclohexanol and trans-1,2-cyclohexanediol in urine correlated significantly with time-weighted average intensity of exposure to cyclohexanone. Although trans -1,4-isomer was also excreted, its quantitative relation with cyclohexanone exposure could not be established, because the solvent extraction rate was low and unstable. Excretion of cis-isomers was not confirmed. The two analytes, cyclohexanol and trans-1,2-cyclohexanediol, appeared to be equally valid as exposure markers, but the latter may be superior to the former in the sense that it is sensitive enough to separate the exposed from the non-exposed at 1 ppm or less cyclohexanone exposure.     

SAR study of bicyclo[4.1.0]heptanes as melanin-concentrating hormone receptor R1 antagonists: taming hERG

To improve the ex vivo potency of MCH inhibitor 1a and to address its hERG liability, a structure-activity study was carried out, focusing on three regions of the lead structure. Introduction of new side chains with basic nitrogen improved in vitro and ex vivo bindings. Many potent compounds with K(i)<10nM were discovered (compounds 6a-j) and several compounds (14-17) had excellent ex vivo binding at 6h and 24h. Attenuating the basicity of nitrogen on the side chain, and in particular, introduction of a polar group such as aminomethyl on the distal phenyl ring significantly lowered the hERG activity. Further replacement of the distal phenyl group with heteroaryl groups in the cyclohexene series provided compounds such as 28l with excellent ex vivo activity with much reduced hERG liability.     

Density functional theory studies on hydroxylamine mechanism of cyclohexanone ammoximation on titanium silicalite-1 catalyst

The hydroxylamine mechanism of cyclohexanone ammoximation on defective titanium active site of titanium silicalite-1 (TS-1) was simulated using two-layer ONIOM (M062X/6-31G**:PM6) method. A new energy favorable reaction route was found, which contained two parts: (1) the catalytic oxidation of adsorbed NH₃ to form hydroxylamine using the Ti-OOH as an active oxidant formed by reacting H₂O₂ with the defective Ti active site; (2) the subsequent noncatalytic oximation of desorbed hydroxylamine and cyclohexanone out of TS-1 pores to form cyclohexanone oxime. In the catalytic formation of hydroxylamine on the Ti active site of TS-1, the proposed mechanism of two-step single-proton transfer aided by a lattice oxygen atom bonded to Ti atom need a lower reaction energy than the mechanism proposed before. In the subsequent noncatalytic oximation of hydroxylamine and cyclohexanone, which contained two elementary reaction steps in total, the mechanisms of one-step double-proton transfer in the first elementary reaction step and the subsequent one-step three-proton transfer for the second elementary reaction step were proposed, in which the solvent water molecules played a very important role in assisting and stabilizing the proton transfer processes.     

一株太平洋深海环己酮降解菌的筛选与功能研究

从太平洋深海菌株中筛选到一株能以环己酮为唯一碳源生长的微球菌(CN1),其最适生长温度为25℃~37℃,最适生长pH8,最适生长盐度6%。该菌可耐受高浓度环己酮(>44% V/V),并且在16.7%(V/V)的环己酮中生长最好。CN1可转化环己醇成环己酮,环己酮又可被快速降解、矿化。这表明该菌含有环己醇脱氢酶并且很可能还含有环己酮单加氧酶。通过兼并PCR克隆到450bp环己酮单加氧酶基因片段,其编码的氨基酸序列不仅具有Baeyer-Villiger单加氧酶家族的保守序列,而且与节杆菌(Arthrobacter BP2)的环己酮单加氧酶同源性最高(80%),而与研究较深入的不动杆菌(Acinetobacter sp.NCIMB 9871)单加氧酶的同源性仅为53%。由于目前报道的环己醇和环己酮的降解都是通过环己酮单加氧酶进行的,所以CN1的环己酮单加氧酶应该负责环己酮的降解。目前报道的环己酮降解菌都可以降解环戊酮,而CN1不可降解环戊酮,暗示了CN1的环己酮单加氧酶比较特别。另外,我们还首次发现在CN1中环己醇对环己酮的降解有一定的抑制作用。     

Comparison of cyclohexanone monooxygenase as an isolated enzyme and whole cell biocatalyst for the enantioselective oxidation of 1,3-dithiane

Both whole cells of recombinant Escherichia coli TOP10, overexpressing cyclohexanone monooxygenase (CHMO) and isolated cyclohexanone monooxygenase, were used to carry out the enantioselective oxidation of 1,3-dithiane (1) to (R)-1,3-dithiane-1-oxide (2). The two biocatalysts were evaluated under various experimental conditions (e.g., shaken flask or bioreactor; non-bound or resin-adsorbed substrate; different substrate concentrations) in terms of volumetric productivity and enantioselectivity. While productivity was similar in the two cases (up to 0.58 g L⁻¹ h⁻¹), the optical purity of the product was much higher with the isolated enzyme (up to 98% e.e.) than with the whole cell biocatalyst (up to 85% e.e.).     

An automated microscale platform for evaluation and optimization of oxidative bioconversion processes

In this work an integrated robotic platform has been used for the development of a fully automated microscale process sequence comprising fermentation and bioconversion using E. coli TOP10 [pQR210] expressing cyclohexanone monooxygenase (CHMO). Ninety six-Deep Square Well (96-DSW) microtiter plates were used for microbial culture and enzyme-catalyzed conversion, where plate preparation, reagent addition, and sampling were all carried out without manual intervention. The adoption of automated robotic procedures has enabled the rapid collection of kinetic data for whole process optimization at the microscale. This high-throughput approach enabled a range of amino acid sources for media formulation and well fill volumes to be investigated highlighting when nutritional limitation and oxygen limitations took place. The automated process sequence has been applied to test six CHMO substrates including norcamphor and cycloheptanone all of which to the best of our knowledge have yet to be tested with E. coli TOP10 [pQR210]. Substrate specificity and product selectivity were effectively demonstrated and compared to both the natural substrate cyclohexanone and the model substrate bicyclo[3.2.0]hept-2-en-6-one used to demonstrate asymmetric synthesis. The results obtained using the developed process sequence could be reproduced at 75 L scale when a matched oxygen transfer coefficient k(L) a approach was used. The study demonstrates how automated microscale processing enables the rapid collection of kinetic quantitative data in a robust manner with clear implications for accelerating bioprocess development, optimization, and scale-up.     

Whole cell application of Lactobacillus paracasei BD101 to produce enantiomerically pure (S)‐cyclohexyl(phenyl)methanol

In this study, a total of 10 bacterial strains were screened for their ability to reduce cyclohexyl(phenyl)methanone 1 to its corresponding alcohol. Among these strains, Lactobacillus paracasei BD101 was found to be the most successful biocatalyst to reduce the ketones to the corresponding alcohols. The reaction conditions were systematically optimized for the reducing agent L paracasei BD101, which showed high enantioselectivity and conversion for the bioreduction. The preparative scale asymmetric reduction of cyclohexyl(phenyl)methanone ( 1 ) by L paracasei BD101 gave (S)‐cyclohexyl(phenyl)methanol ( 2 ) with 92% yield and >99% enantiomeric excess. The preparative scale study was carried out, and a total of 5.602 g of (S)‐cyclohexyl(phenyl)methanol in high enantiomerically pure form (>99% enantiomeric excess) was produced. L paracasei BD101 has been shown to be an important biocatalyst in asymmetric reduction of bulky substrates. This study demonstrates the first example of the effective synthesis of (S)‐cyclohexyl(phenyl)methanol by the L paracasei BD101 as a biocatalyst in preparative scale.     

植物气味化合物与斜纹夜蛾性信息素的协同作用

为提高现有性信息素对雄蛾的引诱活性, 本研究通过大量的田间试验探索植物气味化合物与斜纹夜蛾Spodoptera litura性信息素（顺9, 反11-十四碳二烯乙酸酯∶顺9, 反12-十四碳二烯乙酸酯=10∶1）的协同作用机制。从斜纹夜蛾寄主植物和花的气味化合物中, 选择9种有代表性的化合物, 并以一定剂量分别加入到斜纹夜蛾性信息素诱芯中, 在田间测试对雄蛾的引诱活性。结果表明: 在测试的9种植源性化合物中, 发现一定剂量(每个诱芯加入0.4 mg)的苯乙醛(PAA), 具有显著提高斜纹夜蛾性信息素的引诱作用, 而高剂量的苯乙醛则强烈抑制性信息素的引诱活性; 此外, 其他各种浓度的测试化合物或混合物对性信息素则没有统计上显著的增效作用。不同剂量的苯乙醛单个化合物及各种植物气味化合物组成的混合物对斜纹夜蛾也有微弱的引诱作用。苯乙醛必须要与性信息素的完整组分(以10∶1比例混合的顺9, 反11-十四碳二烯乙酸酯和顺9反, 12-十四碳二烯乙酸酯)混合才能起作用, 缺少顺9, 反12-十四碳二烯乙酸酯则没有引诱活性。本研究证明, 苯乙醛作为理想的性信息素诱芯增效剂, 可应用于建立更理想的斜纹夜蛾性信息素诱杀技术, 对性诱害虫防治和测报具有应用价值。     

Mass-spectrometric analysis of 2-aminobenzophenone derivatives and their metabolites

Mass-spectrometry analysis was carried out for 2-aminobenzophenone, its halogen derivatives and metabolites formed in the rat organism. The characteristic fragmentation patterns were outlined for the products arising on hydroxylation of the above compounds. The structural specificity in the oxidation of 2-aminobenzophenones was found to be different from that predominant in hydroxylation of phenyl (o-chlorophenyl) ring of 1,4-benzodiazepines which give on hydrolysis the respective benzophenones.     

Identification of trans-4-[1-[[7-fluoro-2-(1-methyl-3-indolyl)-6-benzoxazolyl]acetyl]-(4S)-fluoro-(2S)-pyrrolidinylmethoxy]cyclohexanecarboxylic acid as a potent, orally active VLA-4 antagonist

For the purpose of obtaining orally potent VLA-4 inhibitors, we have carried out structural modification of the (N'-phenylureido)phenyl group in compound 1, where the group was found to be attributed to poor pharmacokinetic profile in our previous research. Through modification, we have identified several compounds with both potent in vitro activity and improved oral exposure. In particular, compound 7e with 7-fluoro-2-(1-methyl-1H-indol-3-yl)-1,3-benzoxazolyl group as a novel replacement of the (N'-phenylureido)phenyl group significantly inhibited eosinophil infiltration into bronchoalveolar lavage fluid at 15mg/kg in an Ascaris-antigen-induced murine bronchial inflammatory model, and its efficacy was comparable to that of the anti-mouse α(4) antibody (R1-2).     

Synthesis and Evaluation of Anticonvulsant Activity of Some Schiff Bases of 7‐Amino‐1,3‐dihydro‐2H‐1,4‐benzodiazepin‐2‐one

A variety of 1,3‐dihydro‐2H‐1,4‐benzodiazepin‐2‐one azomethines and 1,3‐dihydro‐2H‐1,4‐benzodiazepin‐2‐one benzamide were prepared, characterized and evaluated for the anticonvulsant activity in the rat using picrotoxin‐induced seizure model. The prepared 1,3‐dihydro‐2H‐1,4‐benzodiazepin‐2‐one azomethine derivatives emerged potentially anticonvulsant molecular scaffolds exemplified by compounds, 7‐{(E)‐[(4‐nitrophenyl)methylidene]amino}‐5‐phenyl‐1,3‐dihydro‐2H‐1,4‐benzodiazepin‐2‐one, 7‐[(E)‐{[4‐(dimethylamino)phenyl]methylidene}amino]‐5‐phenyl‐1,3‐dihydro‐2H‐1,4‐benzodiazepin‐2‐one, 7‐{(E)‐[(4‐bromo‐2,6‐difluorophenyl)methylidene]amino}‐5‐phenyl‐1,3‐dihydro‐2H‐1,4‐benzodiazepin‐2‐one and 7‐[(E)‐{[3‐(4‐fluorophenyl)‐1‐phenyl‐1H‐pyrazol‐4‐yl]methylidene}amino]‐5‐phenyl‐1,3‐dihydro‐2H‐1,4‐benzodiazepin‐2‐one. All these four compounds have shown substantial decrease in the wet dog shake numbers and grade of convulsions with respect to the standard drug diazepam. The most active compound, 7‐[(E)‐{[4‐(dimethylamino)phenyl]methylidene}amino]‐5‐phenyl‐1,3‐dihydro‐2H‐1,4‐benzodiazepin‐2‐one, exhibited 74 % protection against convulsion which was higher than the standard drug diazepam. Furthermore, to identify the binding mode of the interaction amongst the target analogs and binding site of the benzodiazepine receptor, molecular docking study and molecular dynamic simulation were carried out. Additionally, in silico pharmacokinetic and toxicity predictions of target compounds were carried out using AdmetSAR tool. Results of ADMET studies suggest that the pharmacokinetic parameters of all the target compounds were within the acceptable range to become a potential drug candidate as antiepileptic agents.     

Green route for the heterocyclization of 2-mercaptobenzimidazole into beta-lactum segment derivatives containing -CONH- bridge with benzimidazole: Screening in vitro antimicrobial activity with various microorganisms

The efficient and rapid synthesis of novel azetidin-2-ones 4a–j has been established. Thus, both microwave and conventional condensation 2-{(1H-benzimidazol)-ylthio}-N′-2-(substituted phenyl) hydrazide with chloroacetylchloride were carried out in DMF-benzene solvent in the presence of Et₃N catalyst. The microwave synthesis route afforded better yield with short time. The novel heterocycles were characterized by elemental analysis and spectral features. Some of the produced compounds were screened for their antimicrobial activity.     

SAR studies on the central phenyl ring of substituted biphenyl oxazolidinone-potent CETP inhibitors

SAR studies of the substitution effect on the central phenyl ring of the biphenyl scaffold were carried out using anacetrapib (9a) as the benchmark. The results revealed that the new analogs with substitutions to replace trifluoromethyl (9a) had a significant impact on CETP inhibition in vitro. In fact, analogs with some small groups were as potent or more potent than the CF(3) derivative for CETP inhibition. Five of these new analogs raised HDL-C significantly (>20mg/dL). None of them however was better than anacetrapib in vivo. The synthesis and biological evaluation of these CETP inhibitors are described.     

Theoretical elucidation on the functional role of pyrrolidine-type ionic liquids in inducing stereoselectivity of the Michael addition of cyclohexanone with trans-β-nitrostyrene

Density functional theory calculations have been carried out to elucidate the stereoselectivity of the Michael addition of cyclohexanone with trans-β-nitrostyrene, induced by a chiral ionic liquid (CIL) pyrrolidine-imidazolium bromide. By comparison of the C-C bond forming processes in the absence and presence of Br(-) anion, we found that intermolecular H-bonds between the imidazolium cation and the nitro group of trans-β-nitrostyrene and the steric hindrance of the imidazolium cation moiety on the Si-face of enamine dominate the stereoselectivity of the Michael addition. The presence of Br(-) anion obviously reduces the barrier by increasing the polarity of the C4=C5 bond of enamine. The theoretical results rationalize well the early experimental finding, and reveal a valuable clue for the further CIL design with high catalytic efficiency.     

Metal-induced supramolecular chirality in optically active polymers of oxazoline-substituted N-phenylmaleimides

Polymerization of N-phenylmaleimide derivatives bearing a chiral oxazoline substituent at ortho-position on the phenyl group (namely, N-[o-(4,5-dihydro-1,3-oxazol-2-yl)phenyl]maleimides, OPMI) was carried out with diethylzinc (Et2Zn) as an initiator. The resulting polymers exhibited a quite high specific rotation and a unique split-type circular dichroism. Furthermore, an induced Cotton effect was observed in the pi-pi* transition region of the chromophores upon complexation of these polymers with copper(II) salt in tetrahydrofuran solution, indicating the formation of chiral supramolecular aggregates. The induced supramolecular chirality was found to be dependent on the absolute configuration of monomer units, that is, the polymers with (R)-configurational oxazolinyl chromophores tended to form chiral aggregates with levorotatory handedness, while polymers obtained from the (S)-monomer offered dextrogyrate one upon the addition of Cu(II) salt.