pcsk9 siRNA对oxLDL诱导的THP-1源性巨噬细胞凋亡的影响

为研究pcsk9基因沉默后对氧化型低密度脂蛋(oxLDL)诱导THP-1源性巨噬细胞凋亡的影响,用不同浓度oxLDL处理THP-1源性巨噬细胞48 h,Hoechst33258染色检测细胞凋亡,RT-PCR、Western blot分别检测pcsk9 mRNA、NARC-1蛋白的表达.应用Lipofectamine2000转染3对pcsk9 siRNAs进THP-1源性巨噬细胞中,筛选出最有效的siRNA再转染入THP-1源性巨噬细胞,24 h后加入oxLDL处理48 h,Hoechst33258染色观察细胞评价细胞凋亡,流式细胞术计数检测细胞凋亡率.结果发现,75 mg/L oxLDL处理THP-1源性巨噬细胞48 h后,Hoechst33258染色可见大量凋亡细胞.同时RT-PCR、Western blot检测发现,pcsk9 mRNA和NARC-1蛋白质表达量均随oxLDL浓度的增加而增加,75 mg/LoxLDL组增加最明显.不同浓度siRNA转染THP-1源性巨噬细胞后,RT-PCR筛选出3对siRNAs的终浓度为80 nmol/L均可出现明显的沉默效应.选取此浓度在蛋白质水平检测基因抑制情况,筛选出最有效的一对siRNA.将筛选出来的siRNA转染细胞24 h后,再用oxLDL处理48 h,Hoechst33258染色及流式细胞计数结果显示,转染siRNA组凋亡明显被抑制.结果表明,在本研究的浓度范围内,随着oxLDL浓度增加pcsk9的表达随之增加,同时,THP-1源性巨噬细胞凋亡也明显增加,75 mg/L oxLDL最明显,pcsk9 mRNA和蛋白质的表达也在该浓度最高.提示pcsk9 siRNA能有效抑制pcsk9基因的表达,从而有效抑制由oxLDL诱导的THP-1源性巨噬细胞的凋亡.     

LDL、oxLDL对THP-1巨噬细胞PCSK9、LDLR表达的影响研究

为研究低密度脂蛋白(LDL)、氧化修饰的低密度脂蛋白(oxLDL)对THP-1源性巨噬细胞中PCSK9、 LDLR表达的影响及两者之间的关系.分别用0mg/L、10mg/L、20mg/L、30mg/L的LDL和0mg/L、10mg/L、20mg/L、30mg/L的oxLDL处理THP-1巨噬细胞,油红O染色检测细胞荷脂情况,免疫荧光检测THP-1巨噬细胞上PCSK9蛋白表达及分布情况,RT-PCR、 Western blot检测THP-1巨噬细胞上PCSK9、 LDLR mRNA、蛋白质的表达.结果发现,不同浓度LDL处理THP-1巨噬细胞后,随着LDL浓度的增大,细胞内脂滴数目略有增多.免疫荧光染色发现,PCSK9在THP-1巨噬细胞上的表达随LDL浓度的增加而增多,胞浆内定位于某一特定细胞器中;RT-PCR、 Western blot检测发现,LDL可以呈浓度依赖性下调THP-1巨噬细胞中LDLR的表达和上调PCSK9的表达.不同浓度oxLDL处理THP-1巨噬细胞后,随oxLDL浓度的增大,脂滴颗粒明显增加;oxLDL处理对THP-1巨噬细胞上PCSK9、 LDLR mRNA、蛋白质的表达影响均不明显.研究结果表明:THP-1巨噬细胞上,同时有PCSK9和LDLR的表达,且PCSK9定位于胞浆中某一特定细胞器;oxLDL对THP-1巨噬细胞LDLR和PCSK9表达没有影响;LDL能够降低THP-1巨噬细胞表面LDLR的表达,同时上调PCSK9表达,初步说明在THP-1巨噬细胞中,两者有一定的相关性.     

研究: 肺炎衣原体抑制LXRα-ABCA1途径促进巨噬细胞脂质蓄积

为探讨肝X受体α (LXRα)-三磷酸腺苷结合盒转运体A1 (ABCA1)途径在肺炎衣原体 (C. pneumoniae)促巨噬细胞脂质蓄积中的作用和机制,以THP-1巨噬细胞源性泡沫细胞为模型,采用高效液相色谱分析细胞内总胆固醇、游离胆固醇和胆固醇酯含量,液体闪烁计数器检测细胞内胆固醇流出,RT-PCR检测ABCA1和LXRα mRNA的表达,蛋白质印迹检测ABCA1和LXRα的蛋白质表达;使用LXRα的特异性激动剂T0901317对细胞进行预处理,再观察上述指标的变化．结果显示,C. pneumoniae可促进THP-1巨噬细胞源性泡沫细胞内总胆固醇、游离胆固醇和胆固醇酯含量增加,抑制胆固醇外流,降低细胞ABCA1和LXRα的表达;使用ABCA1激动剂8-溴-环磷酸腺苷预处理细胞或LXR激动剂T0901317预处理细胞后,可明显减弱C. pneumoniae对THP-1细胞ABCA1的表达抑制,促进细胞胆固醇流出,降低细胞内胆固醇的含量．结果提示,C. pneumoniae促进巨噬细胞脂质蓄积及胆固醇流出障碍,其机制可能与LXRα-ABCA1途径有关．     

IGF-1抑制妊娠合并糖尿病诱导的鼠胚胎细胞凋亡

为研究妊娠合并糖尿病对孕妇及胎儿产生危害的机制,构建妊娠合并糖尿病的昆明小鼠动物模型,检测不同浓度葡萄糖对体外培养胚泡细胞生长的影响．观察不同浓度胰岛素样生长因子-1(insulin-like growth factor-1, IGF-1)对体外高糖环境胚泡细胞发育的影响,利用细胞核DNA双染实验观察不同浓度IGF-1作用下胚泡细胞的凋亡．采用实时定量PCR(RT-PCR)分析不同凋亡相关基因在体外培养胚泡中的表达情况．结果显示,随着葡萄糖浓度的增加,胚泡细胞总数减少,高浓度葡萄糖(≥30 mmol/L)则能显著性抑制胚泡细胞的生长(P < 0.01)．RT-PCR检测发现妊娠合并糖尿病小鼠的胚泡igf-1表达下调,且与葡萄糖的浓度成正相关．凋亡相关基因bcl-2和bcl-xl的表达随着体外IGF-1培养浓度的增加而表达上调,而p53基因和凋亡相关基因Bax的表达则下调．细胞凋亡实验显示,随着IGF-1浓度的增加,体外培养胚泡细胞的凋亡逐渐降低,当IGF-1浓度达到100 μg/L时,几乎未发现细胞凋亡．因此,高血糖能抑制胚泡细胞的生长发育,导致igf-1的表达下调,而IGF-1能抑制胚泡细胞的凋亡,有利于胚泡细胞的生长发育．     

大肠杆菌对体外培养的THP-1细胞凋亡的影响

目的探讨大肠杆菌(E.coli)感染与THP-1细胞凋亡的关系.方法以THP-1细胞作为E.coli感染的体外细胞模型,当细胞与细菌浓度比分别为1:5,1:10,1:20,1:50及1:100时,用荧光染色技术、Annexin V/PI双染流式细胞仪检测分析等方法检测细胞凋亡率.结果细胞与细菌浓度比较低时(1:5)即可引起部分THP-1细胞发生凋亡,THP-1细胞凋亡百分率随E.coli感染剂量的增加而增加.Hoechst33258荧光染色及流式细胞仪二种方法所得结果一致.结论 E.coli以剂量依赖方式诱导THP-1细胞凋亡.     

曲格列酮对THP-1巨噬细胞源性泡沫细胞ABCA1表达及胆固醇流出的影响

目的:研究曲格列酮对THP-1巨噬细胞源性泡沫细胞ABCA1表达及胆固醇流出的影响。方法:采用液体闪烁计数法测定曲格列酮处理后THP-1巨噬细胞源性泡沫细胞胆固醇流出。用RT-PCR和Western blotting的方法检测曲格列酮处理后THP-1巨噬细胞源性泡沫细胞ABCA1 mRNA水平和蛋白质水平的变化。结果:经曲格列酮处理后,THP-1巨噬细胞源性泡沫细胞的胆固醇流出具有时间依赖性的增加,从0h的1．82%上升到24h的7．61%。在mRNA水平和蛋白质水平ABCA1也均随着曲格列酮作用时间增加而表达上调。结论:曲格列酮能增加THP-1巨噬细胞源性泡沫细胞ABCA1表达和胆固醇流出。     

pcsk9/NARC-1在脂质代谢和神经系统中的作用

人类前蛋白转化酶枯草溶菌素9基因（pcsk9）编码神经细胞凋亡调节转化酶-1蛋白（NARC-1）,该基因属于蛋白转化酶家族. pcsk9/NARC-1通过调节细胞表面低密度脂蛋白受体,从而在胆固醇代谢中发挥重要作用;其两种不同突变类型,可导致血液中胆固醇水平完全相反的变化,出现低胆固醇血症或高胆固醇血症.最近发现, pcsk9/NARC-1可能还影响神经系统分化,调节神经元凋亡. pcsk9/NARC-1与动脉粥样硬化（As）和阿尔茨海默病（AD）的发生可能存在潜在联系.考虑到载脂蛋白E（ApoE）在As和AD中也都起着重要作用,探讨pcsk9/NARC-1与ApoE之间可能的相关性对阐明两者在胆固醇代谢紊乱和神经系统疾病中的作用可能具有重要意义.     

RNA干扰ABCE1基因后可抑制肺癌95-D/NCI-H446细胞的增殖和诱导细胞凋亡

ABCE1作为RNase L抑制剂首先是在脊椎动物中被发现的．前期研究结果显示ABCE1与肺腺癌的发生率及临床分期显著相关．为了进一步研究ABCE1的新功能,构建了ABCE1基因的siRNA表达质粒(RNAi-Ready pSIREN-DNR-DsRed-　Express vector),培养肺癌细胞(95-D和 NCI-H446),用FuGENE 6作为转染试剂转染后,使用荧光显微镜观察转染效果,RT-PCR分析ABCE1基因表达,Western blot 分析ABCE1蛋白的表达,MTT法检测细胞的活性,流式细胞仪分析细胞周期,ELISA法检测细胞凋亡．结果显示：质粒的转染效果较满意,阳性率约为42.70%;在实验组,细胞活性和生长指数明显受到抑制,细胞凋亡明显增加,与对照组比较差异显著(P < 0.05)．上述结果显示,RNA干扰ABCE1基因可显著抑制肺癌细胞(95-D/NCI-H446) RNA的转录、蛋白质的表达,并增加细胞凋亡,为进一步研究ABCE1基因提供必要的基础．     

大肠杆菌感染与人巨噬细胞系U937 细胞凋亡的关系及NF-κB的变化

目的探讨大肠杆菌(E.coli)感染与人巨噬细胞系U937细胞凋亡的关系及核转录因子(nuclear factorkappa B,NF-κB)表达的变化。方法以Annexin V FITC/PI双染流式细胞仪检测及Hoechst 33258荧光染色观察为指标,研究E.coli感染对人巨噬细胞系U937细胞凋亡的诱导作用;用Western blot方法检测NF-ΚB的表达。结果Ho-echst 33258荧光染色结果表明当细胞与细菌浓度比较低时(1:10)可引起部分细胞凋亡,Annexin V FITC/PI双染流式细胞仪结果表明,当细胞与细菌浓度比为1:20,1:50及1:100时,细胞凋亡率与对照组相比明显增高,有显著性差异(P<0.001)。NF-κB的表达随着E.coli浓度的增加而逐渐降低。结论E.coli以剂量依赖的方式诱导U937细胞凋亡,在此过程中NF-κB的表达逐渐降低。     

鰤诺卡氏菌对大口黑鲈头肾巨噬细胞的侵染过程

【背景】鱼类诺卡氏菌病潜伏期和病程较长,感染率和死亡率较高,给水产养殖业带来较大的经济损失,其病原鰤诺卡氏菌(Nocardia seriolae)是胞内寄生菌,侵入细胞后引起慢性感染是主要的致病机制。【目的】构建鰤诺卡氏菌侵染大口黑鲈(Micropterus salmoides)头肾巨噬细胞体外模型,观察鰤诺卡氏菌侵染巨噬细胞的过程并探究鰤诺卡氏菌对巨噬细胞的凋亡作用。【方法】采用密度梯度离心法分离巨噬细胞,通过特异性染色和PCR扩增巨噬细胞表达基因mpeg1对细胞进行鉴定,并通过CCK-8法和氧呼吸暴发活性测定检测巨噬细胞的活性;通过倒置荧光显微镜和流式细胞术观察侵染过程中细菌与细胞的形态与数量变化;通过双荧光流式细胞术检测、乳酸脱氢酶(lactate dehydrogenase, LDH)释放试验及线粒体膜电位检测,探究鰤诺卡氏菌对巨噬细胞的凋亡作用。【结果】从大口黑鲈头肾分离获得纯度高的巨噬细胞,经染色和PCR法鉴定为巨噬细胞;筛选出最优的体外培养条件为1640培养基+1%青霉素链霉素+1%胎牛血清。在脂多糖刺激后,巨噬细胞的氧呼吸暴发能力显著提高(P<0.05)。GFP-鰤诺卡氏菌侵染细胞2 h后细菌被细胞吞噬,4 h细胞变圆且贴壁率降低,6 h细菌大量繁殖并包围细胞,8 h后细胞大量死亡。凋亡相关实验结果表明,侵染初期巨噬细胞凋亡率增加,LDH释放增加,线粒体膜电位下降;随着侵染时间延长,细胞凋亡率下降、LDH释放量及线粒体膜电位下降减少,说明鰤诺卡氏菌对巨噬细胞起先促进后抑制凋亡的作用。【结论】通过密度梯度离心法成功分离大口黑鲈头肾巨噬细胞,并通过鰤诺卡氏菌侵染细胞后初步摸清鰤诺卡细菌在细胞水平的致病机理,建立了鰤诺卡氏菌侵染大口黑鲈头肾巨噬细胞的体外模型;证实了鰤诺卡氏菌可侵染巨噬细胞并抑制细胞凋亡,从而达到在巨噬细胞内存活,为进一步开展鰤诺卡氏菌与巨噬细胞相互作用并阐明鰤诺卡氏菌的致病机制奠定了研究基础。     

Secreted PCSK9 downregulates low density lipoprotein receptor through receptor-mediated endocytosis

Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) is a protease that regulates low density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR) protein levels. The mechanisms of this action, however, remain to be defined. We show here that recombinant human PCSK9 expressed in HEK293 cells was readily secreted into the medium, with the prosegment associated with the C-terminal domain. Secreted PCSK9 mediated cell surface LDLR degradation in a concentration- and time-dependent manner when added to HEK293 cells. Accordingly, cellular LDL uptake was significantly reduced as well. When infused directly into C57B6 mice, purified human PCSK9 substantially reduced hepatic LDLR protein levels and resulted in increased plasma LDL cholesterol. When added to culture medium, fluorescently labeled PCSK9 was endocytosed and displayed endosomal-lysosomal intracellular localization in HepG2 cells, as was demonstrated by colocalization with DiI-LDL. PCSK9 endocytosis was mediated by LDLR as LDLR deficiency (hepatocytes from LDLR null mice), or RNA interference-mediated knockdown of LDLR markedly reduced PCSK9 endocytosis. In addition, RNA interference knockdown of the autosomal recessive hypercholesterolemia (ARH) gene product also significantly reduced PCSK9 endocytosis. Biochemical analysis revealed that the LDLR extracellular domain interacted directly with secreted PCSK9; thus, overexpression of the LDLR extracellular domain was able to attenuate the reduction of cell surface LDLR levels by secreted PCSK9. Together, these results reveal that secreted PCSK9 retains biological activity, is able to bind directly to the LDLR extracellular domain, and undergoes LDLR-ARH-mediated endocytosis, leading to accelerated intracellular degradation of the LDLR.     

PCSK9 inhibition fails to alter hepatic LDLR,circulating cholesterol,and atherosclerosis in the absence of ApoE

LDL cholesterol (LDL-C) contributes to coronary heart disease. Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) increases LDL-C by inhibiting LDL-C clearance. The therapeutic potential for PCSK9 inhibitors is highlighted by the fact that PCSK9 loss-of-function carriers exhibit 15–30% lower circulating LDL-C and a disproportionately lower risk (47–88%) of experiencing a cardiovascular event. Here, we utilized pcsk9^−/− mice and an anti-PCSK9 antibody to study the role of the LDL receptor (LDLR) and ApoE in PCSK9-mediated regulation of plasma cholesterol and atherosclerotic lesion development. We found that circulating cholesterol and atherosclerotic lesions were minimally modified in pcsk9^−/− mice on either an LDLR- or ApoE-deficient background. Acute administration of an anti-PCSK9 antibody did not reduce circulating cholesterol in an ApoE-deficient background, but did reduce circulating cholesterol (−45%) and TGs (−36%) in APOE*3Leiden.cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) mice, which contain mouse ApoE, human mutant APOE3*Leiden, and a functional LDLR. Chronic anti-PCSK9 antibody treatment in APOE*3Leiden.CETP mice resulted in a significant reduction in atherosclerotic lesion area (−91%) and reduced lesion complexity. Taken together, these results indicate that both LDLR and ApoE are required for PCSK9 inhibitor-mediated reductions in atherosclerosis, as both are needed to increase hepatic LDLR expression.     

Functional analysis of sites within PCSK9 responsible for hypercholesterolemia

Mutations within proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) are associated with dominant forms of familial hypercholesterolemia. PCSK9 binds the LDL receptor (LDLR), and addition of PCSK9 to cells promotes degradation of LDLR. PCSK9 mutant proteins associated with hypercholesterolemia (S127R and D374Y) are more potent in decreasing LDL uptake than is wild-type PCSK9. To better understand the mechanism by which mutations at the Ser127 and Asp374 residues of PCSK9 influence PCSK9 function, a limited vertical scanning mutagenesis was performed at both sites. S127R and S127K proteins were more potent in decreasing LDL uptake than was wild-type PCSK9, and each D374 mutant tested was more potent in reducing LDL uptake when the proteins were added exogenously to cells. The potencies of D374 mutants in lowering LDL uptake correlated with their ability to interact with LDLR in vitro. Combining S127R and D374Y was also found to have an additive effect in enhancing PCSK9's ability to reduce LDL uptake. Modeling of PCSK9 S127 and D374 mutations indicates that mutations that enhance PCSK9 function stabilize or destabilize the protein, respectively. In conclusion, these results suggest a model in which mutations at Ser127 and Asp374 residues modulate PCSK9's ability to regulate LDLR function through distinct mechanisms.     

Processing of Procarboxypeptidase E into Carboxypeptidase E Occurs in Secretory Vesicles

Abstract: Carboxypeptidase E (CPE) functions in the posttranslational processing of bioactive peptides. Like other peptide processing enzymes, CPE is initially produced as a precursor ("proCPE") that undergoes posttranslational processing at a site containing five adjacent Arg residues near the N-terminus and at other sites near the C-terminus of proCPE. The time course of the N-terminal processing step suggests that this conversion occurs in either the Golgi apparatus or the secretory vesicles. To delineate further the site of proCPE processing, pulse/chase analysis was performed under conditions that block transit out of the Golgi apparatus (brefeldin A, carbonyl cyanide m -chlorophenylhydrazone, or 20°C) or that block acidification of vesicles (chloroquine, monensin, or ammonium chloride). The results of these analysis suggest that efficient proCPE processing requires an acidic post-Golgi compartment. To test whether known processing enzymes can perform this cleavage, purified proCPE was incubated with furin, prohormone convertase 1, or a dynorphin converting enzyme, and the products were analyzed on denaturing polyacrylamide gels. Furin cleaves proCPE within the N-terminal region, although the reaction is not very efficient, requiring relatively large amounts of furin or long incubation times. The other two peptide processing enzymes did not cleave proCPE, whereas a relatively small amount of secretory granule extract was able to convert proCPE into CPE. Taken together, these findings suggest that the conversion of proCPE into CPE occurs primarily in secretory vesicles.     

PCSK9的药理学筛选靶点

前蛋白转化酶枯草溶菌素9（PCSK9）基因编码神经凋亡调节转化酶即NARC1,通过影响肝LDLR水平,在胆固醇代谢中发挥了重要的作用.其功能获得型突变使血浆胆固醇水平增高,而功能缺失型突变降低胆固醇水平.流行病学调查显示,高胆固醇血症是动脉粥样硬化和心脏病的主要危险因素.一些患者运用当前的降胆固醇药物治疗仍不能达到推荐的目标LDL水平,PCSK9作为新的降脂靶点引起了广泛的关注.本文将对PCSK9的结构、功能和药理学靶点进行综述.     

Plasma PCSK9 preferentially reduces liver LDL receptors in mice

Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) is a secreted protein that regulates the expression of LDL receptor (LDLR) protein. Gain-of-function mutations in PCSK9 cause hypercholesterolemia, and loss-of-function mutations result in lower plasma LDL-cholesterol. Here, we investigate the kinetics and metabolism of circulating PCSK9 relative to tissue levels of LDLRs. The administration of recombinant human PCSK9 (32 microg) to mice by a single injection reduced hepatic LDLRs by approximately 90% within 60 min, and the receptor levels returned to normal within 6 h. The half-life of the PCSK9 was estimated to be approximately 5 min. Continuous infusion of PCSK9 (32 microg/h) into wild-type mice caused a approximately 90% reduction in hepatic LDLRs within 2 h and no associated change in the level of LDLR in the adrenals. Parallel studies were performed using a catalytically inactive form of PCSK9, PCSK9(S386A), and similar results were obtained. Infusion of PCSK9(D374Y), a gain-of-function mutation, resulted in accelerated clearance of the mutant PCSK9 and a greater reduction in hepatic LDLRs. Combined, these data suggest that exogenously administrated PCSK9 in plasma preferentially reduces LDLR protein levels in liver at concentrations found in human plasma and that PCSK9's action on the LDLR is not dependent on catalytic activity in vivo.     

Posttranslational Processing of Carboxypeptidase E, a Neuropeptide-Processing Enzyme, in AtT-20 Cells and Bovine Pituitary Secretory Granules

Abstract: Carboxypeptidase E (CPE) functions in the posttranslational processing of peptide hormones and neurotransmitters. Like other peptide processing enzymes, CPE is present in secretory granules in soluble and membrane-associated forms that arise from posttranslational processing of a single precursor, “proCPE.” To identify the intracellular site of proCPE processing, the biosynthesis and posttranslational processing were investigated in the mouse anterior pituitary-derived cell line, AtT-20. Following a 15-min pulse with [³⁵S]Met, both soluble and membrane-bound forms of CPE were identified, indicating that the posttranslational processing event that generates these forms of CPE occurs in the endoplasmic reticulum or early Golgi apparatus. The relative proportion of soluble and membrane-bound forms of CPE changed when cells were chased for 2 h at 37°C but was unaffected when cells were chased at either 20 or 15°C, suggesting that further processing of membrane forms to the soluble form occurs in a post-Golgi compartment. Treatment of the cells with chloroquine did not alter the relative distribution of soluble and membrane forms, suggesting that an acidic compartment is not required for this processing event. Overexpression of CPE did not influence the distribution of soluble and membrane forms of CPE, indicating that the CPE-processing enzymes are not rate-limiting. To examine directly CPE-processing enzymes, bovine anterior pituitary secretory vesicles were isolated. An enzyme activity that releases the membrane-bound form of CPE was detected in the purified secretory vesicle membranes. This enzyme, which removes the C-terminal region of CPE, is partially inhibited by EDTA and phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride and is activated by CaCI₂. Together, the data indicate that posttranslational processing of CPE occurs in secretory granules and that this activity may be mediated by a prohormone convertase-like enzyme.     

Function and distribution of circulating human PCSK9 expressed extrahepatically in transgenic mice

Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) is predominantly expressed in liver and regulates cholesterol metabolism by down regulating liver LDL receptor (LDLR) proteins. Here we report transgenic overexpression of human PCSK9 in kidney increased plasma levels of PCSK9 and subsequently led to a dramatic reduction in liver LDLR proteins. The regulation of LDLR by PCSK9 displayed tissue specificity, with liver being the most responsive tissue. Even though the PCSK9 transgene was highly expressed in kidney, LDLR proteins were suppressed to a lower extent in this tissue than in liver. Adrenal LDLR proteins were not regulated by elevated plasma PCSK9. hPCSK9 transgene expression and subsequent reduction of liver LDLR led to increases in plasma total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, and ApoB, which were further increased by a high-fat, high-cholesterol diet. We also observed that the size distribution of hPCSK9 in transgenic mouse plasma was heterogeneous. In chow-fed mice, the majority of PCSK9 proteins were in free forms; however, feeding a high-fat, high-cholesterol diet resulted in a shift of hPCSK9 distribution toward larger complexes. PCSK9 distribution in human plasma also exhibited heterogeneity and individual variability in the percentage of PCSK9 in free form and in large complexes. We provide strong evidence to support that human PCSK9 proteins secreted from extrahepatic tissue are able to promote LDLR degradation in liver and increase plasma LDL. Our data also suggest that LDLR protein regulation by PCSK9 has tissue specificity, with liver being the most responsive tissue.