Effects of land-use and climate change on grasshopper assemblages differ between protected and unprotected grasslands

Land-use and climate change are considered the major drivers of recent insect loss. Orthoptera (hereinafter termed ‘grasshoppers’) are the main arthropod consumers in grasslands and, hence, are important elements for supporting ecosystem services. However, for intensively-used agricultural landscapes, it is largely unknown to what extent both factors have affected grasshopper assemblages in protected (nature reserves) and unprotected grasslands.Here, we analysed species richness of grasshopper assemblages in protected (n = 14) and unprotected grasslands (n = 49) by comparing two surveys—one in 1995 and one in 2012—of a landscape with intensive agriculture in the NW-German Lowland. The observed changes were associated with the Community Farmland Index (CFI) and the Community Temperature Index (CTI) in order to disentangle possible effects of land-use and climate change on assemblage shifts.Between the two surveys, environmental conditions substantially changed. Summer temperatures increased by 1.1°C, and grasslands suffered from a severe loss of patches. However, the latter only occurred in unprotected grasslands. Here, 35% of the patches were converted to other biotope types, in particular maize fields as a result of the expansion of bioenergy-crop cultivation. In the grasslands still existing in 2012, irrespective of its protection status, species richness usually increased, except for species with low dispersal ability in unprotected grasslands. By contrast, the development of the CFI and CTI clearly varied between the two grassland types. In protected grasslands, neither the CFI nor the CTI changed. However, in unprotected grasslands, the CFI decreased but the CTI increased.Land-use change has led to a biotic homogenisation at the landscape level and within unprotected grassland patches. Additionally, our study highlights that the legal designation of grasslands as a nature reserve successfully prevents the conversion of grasslands. Overall, well-managed grasslands in nature reserves play a vital role for the conservation of grasshopper biodiversity.     

Change in the woody floristic composition,diversity and structure from protected to unprotected savannahs in Pendjari Biosphere Reserve (Benin,West Africa)

Savannahs are widespread vegetation type in Sudanian zone of Africa. As protected areas are often assumed to be the best way to conserve biodiversity, we assessed the effectiveness of the Pendjari Biosphere Reserve in Benin, for maintaining savannah woody species composition, diversity and structure. Square plots of 900 m² were randomly established in protected and surrounding unprotected savannahs, and all woody species (dbh ≥ 1 cm) were recorded and identified. Species composition, Importance Value Index, densities, basal area and diversity indexes were assessed in relation to conservation status. The results showed that DCA based on presence/absence species data did not separate clearly protected savannahs from unprotected ones. However, some species were prominent in unprotected savannahs while others showed the same scheme in protected ones. Diversity indexes indicated a good distribution of species in the two savannah types. The woody density showed a higher value in protected than unprotected savannah at shrub layer level. The basal area was significantly higher in the protected savannah than unprotected one at the two woody layer levels. It can be concluded that biodiversity conservation in surrounding unprotected areas should be of great importance to increase biodiversity conservation by protected area whether specific actions were implemented.     

Are protected areas maintaining bird diversity?

Evaluating the effectiveness of protected areas for sustaining biodiversity is crucial to achieving conservation outcomes. While studies of effectiveness have improved our understanding of protected‐area design and management, few investigations (< 5%) have quantified the ecological performance of reserves for conserving species. Here, we present an empirical evaluation of protected‐area effectiveness using long‐term measures of a vulnerable assemblage of species. We compare forest and woodland bird diversity in the Australian Capital Territory over 11 yr on protected and unprotected areas located in temperate eucalypt woodland and matched by key habitat attributes. We examine separately the response of birds to protected areas established prior to 1995 and after 1995 when fundamental changes were made to regional conservation policy. Bird diversity was measured in richness, occurrence of vulnerable species, individual species trajectories and functional trait groups. We found that protected areas were effective in maintaining woody vegetation cover in the study region, but were less effective in the protection of the target bird species assemblage. Protected areas were less species rich than unprotected areas, with significant declines in richness across sites protected prior to 1995. Small, specialised and vulnerable species showed stronger associations with unprotected areas than protected areas. Our findings indicate that recently established reserves (post‐1995) are performing similarly to unprotected woodland areas in terms of maintaining woodland bird diversity, and that both of these areas are more effective in the conservation of woodland bird populations than reserves established prior to 1995. We demonstrate that the conservation value of protected areas is strongly influenced by the physical characteristics, as well as the landscape context, of a given reserve and can diminish with changes in surrounding land use over time. Both protected areas and off‐reserve conservation schemes have important roles to play in securing species populations.     

Assessing protected area network effectiveness through the temporal change in avian communities’ composition

Current rates of land use are driving temporal changes in avian communities. Thus, it is essential to properly designate and manage protected areas since they mitigate the adverse effects of temporal changes on species populations. By using common bird monitoring data in Czechia from two periods (2005/2006 and 2014/2015), we calculated two indices of temporal change per each site, the Jaccard dissimilarity index (temporal dissimilarity between the community composition) and the difference in bird species richness between both periods (delta bird species richness). We tested three main predictions on temporal change in bird communities between protected and unprotected areas: (i) bird species richness will be higher inside protected areas, (ii) temporal changes in avian communities will be lower inside protected areas, (iii) the effect of protected areas will interact with land-use types, land-use richness, and altitudinal zones. Bird species richness was higher inside protected areas in 2014/2015, ten years after the implementation of Natura 2000 in Czechia. Both indices of temporal change were lower inside protected areas. The interactions of protected areas and land-use types on the indices of temporal change were not significant. However, interactions with altitudinal zones had a significant positive effect on the indices, i.e., in higher altitudes, delta bird species richness and higher dissimilarity levels. Our study underlines the importance of protected areas for conservation by buffering the consequences of factors driving temporal community changes. Together, our results indicate a positive ‘umbrella’ effect of protected areas on avian communities that was likely facilitated by the implementation of Natura 2000.     

Patterns of Land Cover Change in and Around Madidi National Park, Bolivia

This study examines how human land uses and biophysical factors serve as predictors of land cover change in and around Madidi National Park in Bolivia. The Greater Madidi Landscape ranges over an elevational gradient from < 200 m in the Amazon basin to 6000 m in the high Andes, contains more than ten major ecosystem types, and several protected areas and sustainable use zones. In this study, Landsat Thematic Mapper satellite images collected over the study area at the beginning of the 1990s and then the 2000s were classified according to broad land cover types. Below elevations of 3000 m, the landscape experienced equal rates of deforestation and secondary forest increases of approximately 0.63 percent annually, resulting in no significant net change. Below elevations of 1000 m, however, we found an annual net loss in forest cover of 0.11 percent. Across the landscape, land cover change was most likely to occur near areas previously deforested, near roads and population centers, and at low elevations. We found net deforestation rates to be inversely related to strength of natural resource protection laws in protected areas and other jurisdictions. Results suggest little net change for the landscape as a whole, but that local scale changes may be significant, particularly near roads. Management policies favorable for biodiversity conservation in this landscape should limit the building of new roads and immigration to biologically sensitive areas and continue to support protected areas, which are achieving a positive result for forest conservation.     

Protection status as determinant of carbon stock drivers in Cerrado sensu stricto

天然植被在全球碳循环和碳储存中扮演着重要角色。巴西大草原塞拉多保护区(Cerrado)因自身固有特性被认为是一个碳汇。本研究的目的是评估具有不同保护状况的三个地区,控制区(法定保护区)、保护区(PA)和非保护区(Non-PA)地上生物量与生物多样性关系的变化。这三个被研究的地区都位于巴西米纳斯吉拉斯州(Minas Gerais)北部。根据森林清查资料,该研究对地上碳储量进行了估算,并测量了每个地区生物多样性指标的三个维度：功能性状优势度、分类学多样性和功能多样性。对物种的以下功能性状进行了评价：木材密度、最大直径和种子大小。通过建立广义线性模型,评估了碳储量、群落加权平均值、物种丰富度和多样性以及功能多样性指数在不同地区间的差异。 研究结果表明,未受保护的地区碳储量、物种丰富度、物种多样性、功能丰富度和功能分散度均较低,而保护区和非保护区群落加权平均值最大直径和种子大小均低于法定保护区。广义线性模型结果表明,碳储量与物种和功能丰富度指数在同一地区内和不同地区间存在相关性,因此,物种丰富度可以作为功能丰富度和碳储量的替代指标。物种丰富度和群落加权平均值最大直径对碳储量有正向影响,功能分散度对碳储量有负向影响。功能丰富度、物种多样性和群落加权平均值种子大小出现在最佳模型中,但对碳储量没有显著的直接影响。因此,我们的结论是,在缺乏保护的巴西塞拉多地区会降低物种丰富度和碳储量。     

Human transformation of ecosystems: Comparing protected and unprotected areas with natural baselines

Protected areas serve as reserves of biological diversity and conserve the naturalness of characteristic regional ecosystems. Numerous approaches have been applied to estimate the level of transformation of ecosystems and to compare trends inside and outside of protected areas. In this study, we apply aggregate indicators of anthropogenic pressures on ecosystems and biodiversity in a fine-scale spatial analysis to compare the level of human influence within protected and unprotected areas. The actual state of ecosystems is compared to a natural baseline that is intact or potential natural state. The results show that in a non-protected Central-European landscape, humans appropriate a considerable share of natural ecosystem productivity and carbon stocks, and significantly reduce natural biodiversity and ecosystem services. Human appropriation of net primary production reached more than 60% in total, humans reduced original biodiversity levels by 69%, and net carbon storage was considerably decreased by intensive types of land use. All three indicators significantly differed between protected areas and unprotected areas, suggesting that protected areas maintain higher biodiversity levels, store more carbon and are in total less influenced by human exploitation than average non-protected landscape. Furthermore, we bring evidence that human appropriation of net primary production is negatively related both to biodiversity and ecosystem services indicated by mean species abundance and net carbon storage at the national level. Our results contribute to the quantitative evidence of the impacts of anthropogenic transformation of natural ecosystems on the ecosystem condition, supporting the hypothesis that protected areas significantly reduce anthropogenic pressures and contribute to maintaining critical ecosystem services and biodiversity.     

Multi-node selection of patches for protecting habitat connectivity: Fragmentation versus reachability

Landscape connectivity is of major importance in biodiversity conservation, and is one of the key aspects to be taken into consideration in the spatial design of networks of protected areas. Graph-theoretical approaches are useful in modelling habitat connectivity and defining priority areas for the protection of connectivity. This prioritization can be done based on rankings of the centrality (or importance) of individual habitat patches. Moreover, the centrality of a set of n habitat patches can also be calculated. Importantly, the most central single patch is not necessarily a member of the most central group of n patches (non-nested topology). Multi-node analyses identify groups of patches that maximally complement each other in order to increase the protection of connectivity for the whole network. We apply multi-node analyses to the prioritization of habitat patches for five vulnerable bird species in Catalonia, Spain, using two different approaches to connectivity, based on fragmentation and reachability. Groups of patches based on fragmentation are usually concentrated in core areas, while reachability groups are widely spread. Fragmentation sets have higher centrality value for low-mobility species, and reachability sets for long distance dispersers. The protection of the networks against fragmentation requires fewer patches, allows for more gradual implementation and is currently better accounted for by the Natura 2000 network of protected areas, while the protection of reachability is less costly and more efficient in terms of area requirements. Our work contributes to the development of landscape graph analysis for reserve design towards multi-node approaches.     

Creating Protected Areas on Public Lands: Is There Room for Additional Conservation?

Most evaluations of the effectiveness of PAs have relied on indirect estimates based on comparisons between protected and unprotected areas. Such methods can be biased when protection is not randomly assigned. We add to the growing literature on the impact of PAs by answering the following research questions: What is the impact of Chilean PAs on deforestation which occurred between 1986 and 2011? How do estimates of the impact of PAs vary when using only public land as control units? We show that the characteristics of the areas in which protected and unprotected lands are located differ significantly. To satisfactorily estimate the effects of PAs, we use matching methods to define adequate control groups, but not as in previous research. We construct control groups using separately non-protected private areas and non-protected public lands. We find that PAs avoid deforestation when using unprotected private lands as valid controls, however results show no impact when the control group is based only on unprotected public land. Different land management regimes, and higher levels of enforcement inside public lands may reduce the opportunity to add additional conservation benefits when the national systems for PAs are based on the protection of previously unprotected public lands. Given that not all PAs are established to avoid deforestation, results also admit the potential for future studies to include other outcomes including forest degradation (not just deforestation), biodiversity, wildlife, primary forests (not forests in general), among others.     

Ecological indicators for protection impact assessment at two scales in the Bozin and Marakhil protected area,Iran

Official protection can play a major role in biodiversity conservation, but it may have unintended effects on habitats at multiple scales. We evaluated the effects of this protection designation on forest area and structure at two spatial scales in Bozin and Marakhil protected area. We classified Landsat-5 TM images from 2001 and 2009, covering protected and unprotected areas and used for broad scale analysis, and IKONOS and GeoEye images from 2001 and 2009 for fine scale analysis. We used landscape structure metrics and the models that fit patch size distribution as the ecological indicators of protection impact. The protection effect was scale dependent, with significant habitat loss and fragmentation at the fine scale but not at the broad scale. Protection increased the number of large patches inside the park, as indicated by a shift from a truncated power law to a power law distribution of patch sizes. The habitat structural maintenance and aggregation inside the park, and fragmentation outside the park boundaries, signal a potential shift of human pressure from inside to directly outside of the park. This study indicates the need for spatial analyses on both sides of protection boundaries at multiple scales using complementary indicators to understand the impacts of protection on habitat structure.     

Abrolhos bank reef health evaluated by means of water quality, microbial diversity, benthic cover, and fish biomass data

The health of the coral reefs of the Abrolhos Bank (Southwestern Atlantic) was characterized with a holistic approach using measurements of four ecosystem components: (i) inorganic and organic nutrient concentrations, [1] fish biomass, [1] macroalgal and coral cover and (iv) microbial community composition and abundance. The possible benefits of protection from fishing were particularly evaluated by comparing sites with varying levels of protection. Two reefs within the well-enforced no-take area of the National Marine Park of Abrolhos (Parcel dos Abrolhos and California) were compared with two unprotected coastal reefs (Sebasti?o Gomes and Pedra de Leste) and one legally protected but poorly enforced coastal reef (the "paper park" of Timbebas Reef). The fish biomass was lower and the fleshy macroalgal cover was higher in the unprotected reefs compared with the protected areas. The unprotected and protected reefs had similar seawater chemistry. Lower vibrio CFU counts were observed in the fully protected area of California Reef. Metagenome analysis showed that the unprotected reefs had a higher abundance of archaeal and viral sequences and more bacterial pathogens, while the protected reefs had a higher abundance of genes related to photosynthesis. Similar to other reef systems in the world, there was evidence that reductions in the biomass of herbivorous fishes and the consequent increase in macroalgal cover in the Abrolhos Bank may be affecting microbial diversity and abundance. Through the integration of different types of ecological data, the present study showed that protection from fishing may lead to greater reef health. The data presented herein suggest that protected coral reefs have higher microbial diversity, with the most degraded reef (Sebasti?o Gomes) showing a marked reduction in microbial species richness. It is concluded that ecological conditions in unprotected reefs may promote the growth and rapid evolution of opportunistic microbial pathogens.     

Landscape structure versus the effectiveness of nature conservation: Roztocze region case study (Poland)

The objective of the study was to examine the extent to which landscape metrics could be used as an indicator of efficient management of protection areas. The selected sampling areas were natural–landscape units distinguished within the Roztocze Region located in the central-east Poland. Among 446 units, those representing three typological groups determined by three factors were selected. The factors included (1) the area of the unit; (2) the dominant or characteristic type of ecosystem; and (3) the form of protection. Subsequently, thirteen landscape metrics were calculated with the application of the Fragstats software. The analysis revealed high correlation between the form of nature protection and the majority of the calculated indexes. National park units show the highest landscape diversity and stability of various types of ecosystems. This suggests high conservation efficiency. Landscape park units are distinguished by fragmented patchy composition, and spatial structure even less stable than that of the non-protected areas. The study results show that landscape metrics could be used as an indicator of efficient management of different forms of nature protection. They provide an insight into the structure and functioning of the environment at various levels of its organisation. We particularly found diversity metrics to be useful for indicating whether nature conservation goals are archived, and the size and density metric for measuring human interference in the landscape. The selection and interpretation of indexes should be determined by the specific character of a given area.     

To be or not to be native: From the discourse on the official status of Salix alba to the recommendation to strengthen the protection of marginal populations in Latvia,with notes to related taxa

In Europe, Salix euxina is considered to be an adventive species, while S. alba is regarded as native. When assessing the protection of species in wild habitats, it is important to know the status of each species so that not to protect unreasonably alien species. Analysing the sources of literature, it was noticed that the views of Latvian authors differed — both on the status of the indigenous S. alba, as well as the adventive S. euxina. Research has shown that the ‘official status’ assigned to both basic species on the national level differs and contradicts the scientifically recognized status. This is an interesting case when certain state institutions responsible for nature protection have officially recognized a native species as an alien one and an alien species as a native one through laws and regulations. Considering that there are marginal populations of S. alba of the natural distribution range in Latvia, the most valuable of which occur in the basin of the River Gauja, the current possible protection of S. alba on the national level was analysed. Analysing the legislation, it has been established that rare habitats with S. alba woods (Salicetum albae) on alluvial soils of river flats are also included among the specially protected habitats. Analysing the individual protection regulations of the two largest specially protected areas, i. e. the Protected Landscape Area of the Northern Gauja and the Gauja National Park, it has been concluded that the current protection regime in the country does not ensure full protection of marginal populations of S. alba in natural habitats. This is because the individual protection regulations do not include the specific protected habitats of Salicetum albae and allow the felling of young willows, which contradicts the provisions of the legal act on the structural elements of the habitat Salicetum albae. In order to ensure full protection of marginal populations of S. alba and special habitats formed by the species in Latvia, it is necessary to update and define more accurately the laws and regulation on its protection.     

Evaluating whether protected areas reduce tropical deforestation in Sumatra

Aim  This study determines whether the establishment of tropical protected areas (PAs) has led to a reduction in deforestation within their boundaries or whether deforestation has been displaced to adjacent unprotected areas: a process termed neighbourhood leakage.
Location  Sumatra, Indonesia.
Methods  We processed and analysed 98 corresponding LANDSAT satellite images with a c.  800 m² resolution to map deforestation from 1990 to 2000 across 440,000 km² on the main island of Sumatra and the smaller island of Siberut. We compared deforestation rates across three categories of land: (1) within PAs; (2) in adjacent unprotected land lying with 10 km of PA boundaries; and (3) within the wider unprotected landscape. We used the statistical method of propensity score matching to predict the deforestation that would have been observed had there been no PAs and to control for the generally remote locations in which Sumatran PAs were established.
Results  During the period 1990–2000 deforestation rates were found to be lower inside PAs than in adjacent unprotected areas or in the wider landscape. Deforestation rates were also found to be lower in adjacent unprotected areas than in the wider landscape.
Main conclusions  Sumatran PAs have lower deforestation rates than unprotected areas. Furthermore, a reduction in deforestation rates inside Sumatran PAs has promoted protection, rather than deforestation, in adjacent unprotected land lying within 10 km of PA boundaries. Despite this positive evaluation, deforestation and logging have not halted within the boundaries of Sumatran PAs. Therefore the long-term viability of Sumatran forests remains open to question.     

Patterns of Lynx Predation at the Interface between Protected Areas and Multi-Use Landscapes in Central Europe

In Central Europe, protected areas are too small to ensure survival of populations of large carnivores. In the surrounding areas, these species are often persecuted due to competition with game hunters. Therefore, understanding how predation intensity varies spatio-temporally across areas with different levels of protection is fundamental. We investigated the predation patterns of Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) on roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and red deer (Cervus elaphus) in both protected areas and multi-use landscapes of the Bohemian Forest Ecosystem. Based on 359 roe and red deer killed by 10 GPS-collared lynx, we calculated the species-specific annual kill rates and tested for effects of season and lynx age, sex and reproductive status. Because roe and red deer in the study area concentrate in unprotected lowlands during winter, we modeled spatial distribution of kills separately for summer and winter and calculated-the probability of a deer killed by lynx and-the expected number of kills for areas with different levels of protection. Significantly more roe deer (46.05–74.71/year/individual lynx) were killed than red deer (1.57–9.63/year/individual lynx), more deer were killed in winter than in summer, and lynx family groups had higher annual kill rates than adult male, single adult female and subadult female lynx. In winter the probability of a deer killed and the expected number of kills were higher outside the most protected part of the study area than inside; in summer, this probability did not differ between areas, and the expected number of kills was slightly larger inside than outside the most protected part of the study area. This indicates that the intensity of lynx predation in the unprotected part of the Bohemian Forest Ecosystem increases in winter, thus mitigation of conflicts in these areas should be included as a priority in the lynx conservation strategy.     

不同开垦年限坡地黑土耕层土壤有机碳库分配特征

因耕作和侵蚀的共同作用,农田坡地景观多为坡上侵蚀、坡下沉积的空间格局,同时伴随侵蚀区和沉积区土壤有机碳(SOC)含量及稳定机制的差异.为探明长期耕作的农田黑土有机碳库积累-损耗特征,采用Stewart物理-化学联合分组方法,以典型黑土区不同开垦年限坡耕地为研究对象,探讨基于侵蚀-沉积作用的不同稳定机制碳库(游离未保护碳、物理保护碳、化学保护碳、生物化学保护碳)的分配特征.结果表明: 长期耕作与侵蚀导致坡下沉积区显著富积SOC,4种碳库含量整体表现为沉积区显著大于侵蚀区;黑土区坡耕地SOC以化学保护碳库和生物化学保护碳库为主(>90%),侵蚀区主要积累化学保护有机碳(84.6%),沉积区主要积累生物化学保护有机碳(51.4%);随着开垦年限的延长,4种碳库积累速率随着碳稳定程度的增加而增加,为生物化学保护碳库(48%)>化学保护碳库(42.2%)>物理保护碳库(6.4%)>游离未保护碳库(3.4%);游离未保护有机碳库占比和积累速率最小,但其对外界干扰最敏感,在黑土管理过程中应引起足够重视.     

Impact of terrestrial protected areas on the fish diversity and habitat quality: Evidence from tropical river Pranhita,India

The conservation and management of inland fish and freshwater ecosystems immensely contribute to global sustainable development. The existing ‘Protected Area’ (PA) network does not represent freshwater resources well and seldom considers its fish communities, while designating PAs. A study was undertaken to quantitatively assess the role played by the three terrestrial PAs (IUCN category IV) in conserving fish diversity and preserving habitat quality in the river reaches bordering the three PAs of the river Pranhita. It is a unique river system in the Indian Deccan Plateau in terms of fish diversity and community structure. Field surveys were conducted during the non-monsoon and monsoon seasons in 2020–21, that recorded 53 species including endemic and threatened fishes from river Pranhita, which represent more than one-third the number of fish species of Telangana state. The higher diversity and lower dominance index value (p < 0.01) reported in PAs compared to Eco Sensitive Zones and unprotected areas during the non-monsoon season indicate the role of intact physical habitat in providing refuges to the fish species in monsoon dependent tropical rivers. The optimal water quality revealed no significant difference (p > 0.0001) between protected and unprotected river reaches, and healthy biotic integrity assessed on the basis of fish community structure was attributed to the contiguous flow and less anthropogenic disturbance. This study supports that it can be considered as a representative zone for the conservation and protection of indigenous and endemic fish species of the Godavari Basin. The results concluded that the scope of the terrestrial PA network in India could be potentially extended to their bordering aquatic ecosystems, especially rivers to maintain pristine habitat conditions and conserve the fish genetic resources to ensure the flow of ecosystem services.     

Produktion oder übernahme von schutzstoffen als ursache des Nesselschutzes von Anemonenfischen?

Investigations concerning the protection of anemone fishes have been conducted on reefs near Shimoni (Kenya). Acclimated Amphiprion xanthurus Cuv. & Val. when placed in perforated plastic boxes in the midst of anemones do not lose their protection against stinging. Unacclimated A. xanthurus became protected in this manner. Protected A. xanthurus lost their protection and unprotected ones could not acquire this protection when they were placed within a distance of 5–7 cm or more from actinians. In order to maintain the protection, the intimacy of anemones is absolutely necessary. The quality of protection acquired by the fishes depends on the species of anemone, being either good against only one species or good against several species simultaneously. The fact that the fishes remain protected only if they live in the midst of anemones or very close to them and that the degree of protection is determined by the anemone indicates the importance of the anemones for the acquisition of this protection. These results confirm the suggested mechanism of protection formulated previously by Schlichter, namely that the fishes acquire anemone-substances (‘protective substances’) during the process of acclimation. After becoming protected they bear the same chemical impregnation on their surface as, e.g., tentacles, which do not sting each other. The transmission of protecting substances to unprotected fishes by incubation with extracts from anemones was found to be impossible. After incubation in pepsin, acclimated fishes lost their protection. It seems as though anemone fishes exploit for their protection a principle which the actinians have for their own use. This mechanism exists quite independently of the symbiosis with fishes. The anemones themselves require such ‘protective substances’ for several purposes.     

Is forest landscape restoration socially desirable? A discrete choice experiment applied to the Scandinavian transboundary Fulufjället National Park Area

Using an economic valuation approach, we assessed people's stated preferences for policy aimed at enhancing restoration of functional networks of naturally dynamic boreal forest habitats as a public good. Active landscape restoration can improve the functionality of boreal forest habitats as green infrastructure, which is essential for biodiversity conservation and delivery of multiple ecosystem services that production forests are poor at providing. In contrast, so far designation of protected areas in Fennoscandia has focused on remnant patches of near‐natural forests, and not on forest landscape restoration. We assessed citizens' preferences for forest landscape restoration in a transboundary region primarily managed for sustained‐yield wood production for the forest industry, and which hosts the transboundary Fulufjället National Parks in Sweden and Norway. We conducted a discrete choice experiment by asking Swedish and Norwegian citizens to choose among two options for the Fulufjället area, including (1) extension of passive protection on one side or both sides of the border, by additional area protection and restoration of forest naturalness, and (2) a status quo option. The scenario assumed that extension of the protected forest area would imply a compulsory tax administered bilaterally by the two countries. Just over half of the sample, in both countries expressed willingness to pay for forest landscape restoration. Alternatives that contemplated larger extensions of forest landscape restoration were assigned higher willingness‐to‐pay. Public awareness and support, combined with spatial planning, are necessary for forest landscape restoration to become a viable tool for biodiversity conservation in Scandinavia.     

Spatial genetic and morphologic structure of wolves and coyotes in relation to environmental heterogeneity in a Canis hybrid zone

Eastern wolves have hybridized extensively with coyotes and gray wolves and are listed as a ‘species of special concern’ in Canada. However, a distinct population of eastern wolves has been identified in Algonquin Provincial Park (APP) in Ontario. Previous studies of the diverse Canis hybrid zone adjacent to APP have not linked genetic analysis with field data to investigate genotype‐specific morphology or determine how resident animals of different ancestry are distributed across the landscape in relation to heterogeneous environmental conditions. Accordingly, we studied resident wolves and coyotes in and adjacent to APP to identify distinct Canis types, clarify the extent of the APP eastern wolf population beyond the park boundaries and investigate fine‐scale spatial genetic structure and landscape–genotype associations in the hybrid zone. We documented three genetically distinct Canis types within the APP region that also differed morphologically, corresponding to putative gray wolves, eastern wolves and coyotes. We also documented a substantial number of hybrid individuals (36%) that were admixed between 2 or 3 of the Canis types. Breeding eastern wolves were less common outside of APP, but occurred in some unprotected areas where they were sympatric with a diverse combination of coyotes, gray wolves and hybrids. We found significant spatial genetic structure and identified a steep cline extending west from APP where the dominant genotype shifted abruptly from eastern wolves to coyotes and hybrids. The genotypic pattern to the south and northwest was a more complex mosaic of alternating genotypes. We modelled genetic ancestry in response to prey availability and human disturbance and found that individuals with greater wolf ancestry occupied areas of higher moose density and fewer roads. Our results clarify the structure of the Canis hybrid zone adjacent to APP and provide unique insight into environmental conditions influencing hybridization dynamics between wolves and coyotes.