试论生态分类系统在我国数字林业建设中的应用

我国传统森林区划中,二类小班和三类小班两类小班体系同时存在,二者在空间上不一致;即使是同一小班体系,先后两次调查结果也不相同,不利于应用数字技术制定长期的森林管理计划.本文以辽宁东部山区为例,建立生态分类系统(ecological classification system, ECS),共得到5类生态土地类型(ecological land type, ELT),34类生态土地类型相(ecological land type phase, ELTP).以ELTP作为固定小班,设计了一致性森林资源调查方法,解决了我国数字林业建设中的基础技术问题.以生态分类系统和空间信息技术为依托的生态系统管理方法,加上计算机模型和辅助决策界面的支持,构成了数字林业的基本框架.     

基于物元模型和小班尺度的兰陵溪流域森林生态系统健康评价

评价了三峡库区兰陵溪流域257个小班的森林生态系统健康水平,为林地小班的空间对位配置和结构调整提供理论依据。构建植被结构、生态服务和生态环境等3项一级指标,林龄结构、郁闭度、灌木层盖度等16项二级指标,利用物元模型和二类调查数据评价兰陵溪流域小班尺度的森林生态系统健康水平。结果表明:综合评价等级为"优良"的小班有83个,占32.30%;"一般"的小班有115个,占44.75%;"较差"的小班有59个,占22.96%;土壤有机质密度、郁闭度与小班综合生态系统健康水平呈极显著正相关(P0.01),裸岩率、土壤孔隙度与小班生态系统健康水平相关性显著(P0.05)。植被类型间差异明显,小班综合生态系统健康水平排序为:阔叶林、乔灌林针叶林经济林;通过可拓变换,在单项指标评价的基础上,物元模型综合评价信息更为丰富,评价结果更为客观,物元模型适用于小班生态系统健康水平的评价。     

基于生态系统服务簇的小尺度区域生态用地功能分类-以重庆两江新区为例

生态用地功能分类是其生态价值评估及管理的基础,与生态系统服务的权衡和协同关系联系密切;对小尺度区域进行生态用地功能分类研究有助于实现精细化生态资源管理。以重庆两江新区为例,选取该区8种重要的生态系统服务,兼顾生态与社会成分,基于层次聚类法得到6类生态系统服务簇,依据提供重要生态系统服务和维护关键生态过程的原则,对其重要性等级进行了划分;依据生态系统服务簇与土地利用类型之间的关联关系,将生态用地定义为提供重要生态系统服务、维护关键生态过程或生态脆弱的用地空间,并按重要性将其划分为3个等级。研究结果表明,基于生态系统服务簇的生态用地分类框架不仅能够最大限度涵盖生态用地的功能属性,而且能够在空间上量化不同生态系统服务的相对比例,有助于对用地类型与生态功能之间的对应关系形成深入系统的认识,也可为精细化生态管理提供参考。     

中国植被分类系统修订方案

为了推动《中国植被志》研编工作, 该文回顾了中国植被分类系统的发展过程和主要阶段性成果, 提出了作为《中国植被志》研编技术框架组成部分的中国植被分类系统修订方案, 对各植被型组及各植被型进行了简单定义和描述, 并针对中国植被分类系统若干问题, 特别就中国植被分类系统总体框架、混交林的界定以及土壤在植被分类中的重要性等问题进行了讨论。1960年侯学煜在《中国的植被》中首次提出了中国植被分类的原则和系统, 1980年出版的《中国植被》制定了分类等级和划分依据等更加完善的系统, 之后《中国植被及其地理格局——中华人民共和国1:1 000 000植被图说明书》和《中国植物区系与植被地理》以及很多省区的植被专著对该系统进行过修订。2017年宋永昌在《植被生态学》中提出了一个分类等级单位调整的方案。本次提出的中国植被分类系统修订方案基本沿用《中国植被》的植被分类原则、分类单位及系统, 采用“植物群落学-生态学”分类原则, 主要以植物群落特征及其与环境的关系作为分类依据, 包含三级主要分类单位, 即植被型(高级单位)、群系(中级单位)和群丛(低级单位); 在三个主要分类单位之上分别增加辅助单位植被型组、群系组和群丛组, 在植被型和群系之下主要根据群落的生态差异和实际需要可再增加植被亚型或亚群系。修订方案包含了森林、灌丛、草本植被(草地)、荒漠、高山冻原与稀疏植被、沼泽与水生植被(湿地)、农业植被、城市植被和无植被地段9个植被型组, 划分为48个植被型(含30个自然植被型、12个农业植被型、5个城市植被型和无植被地段)。自然植被中有23个植被型进一步划分出了81个植被亚型。     

中国植被分类系统修订方案

为了推动《中国植被志》研编工作,该文回顾了中国植被分类系统的发展过程和主要阶段性成果,提出了作为《中国植被志》研编技术框架组成部分的中国植被分类系统修订方案,对各植被型组及各植被型进行了简单定义和描述,并针对中国植被分类系统若干问题,特别就中国植被分类系统总体框架、混交林的界定以及土壤在植被分类中的重要性等问题进行了讨论。1960年侯学煜在《中国的植被》中首次提出了中国植被分类的原则和系统,1980年出版的《中国植被》制定了分类等级和划分依据等更加完善的系统,之后《中国植被及其地理格局——中华人民共和国1:1 000 000植被图说明书》和《中国植物区系与植被地理》以及很多省区的植被专著对该系统进行过修订。2017年宋永昌在《植被生态学》中提出了一个分类等级单位调整的方案。本次提出的中国植被分类系统修订方案基本沿用《中国植被》的植被分类原则、分类单位及系统,采用"植物群落学-生态学"分类原则,主要以植物群落特征及其与环境的关系作为分类依据,包含三级主要分类单位,即植被型(高级单位)、群系(中级单位)和群丛(低级单位);在三个主要分类单位之上分别增加辅助单位植被型组、群系组和群丛组,在植被型和群系之下主要根据群落的生态差异和实际需要可再增加植被亚型或亚群系。修订方案包含了森林、灌丛、草本植被(草地)、荒漠、高山冻原与稀疏植被、沼泽与水生植被(湿地)、农业植被、城市植被和无植被地段9个植被型组,划分为48个植被型(含30个自然植被型、12个农业植被型、5个城市植被型和无植被地段)。自然植被中有23个植被型进一步划分出了81个植被亚型。     

不同区域森林火灾对生态因子的响应及其概率模型

火灾是影响森林生态系统过程的重要干扰之一,其对森林生态系统内各生态因子的响应各不相同.由于植被状况及生态环境的不同,森林火灾的时空分布特征在中国不同植被气候类型内表现不同,根据植被气候类型分类系统,将中国主要森林火灾地区划分为4个区域:东北(冷温带松林)、华北(落叶阔叶林)、东南(常绿阔叶林)和西南(热带雨林),应用遥感监测数据和地面环境数据,以时空变量、生态因子(植被生长变化指数、湿度等)为可选自变量,应用半参数化Logistic回归模型,就森林火险对不同生态影响因子的响应规律进行了分析,建立了基于生态因子的着火概率模型和大火蔓延概率模型,通过模拟及实际数据散点图、火险概率图,评估了模型应用价值.结果表明,土壤湿度及植被含水量在落叶阔叶林、常绿阔叶林、热带雨林地区对着火概率影响显著.在4个植被气候区内,土壤及凋落物湿度对大火蔓延的作用较小.在冷温带松林、落叶阔叶林、常绿阔叶林地区,植被生长的年内变化对火灾发生的影响显著,在常绿阔叶林地区,年内植被生长变化对大火蔓延的作用较小.森林火险概率与各生态因子的相关关系主要呈现出非线性.不同植被气候区内,火险概率受不同生态因子组合的影响,这与不同区域的植被状况及生态环境不同有关.在不同植被气候类型,应用时空变量、生态因子建立半参数化logistic回归模型,进行着火概率和大火蔓延概率的模拟具有可行性和实际应用能力.为进一步分析森林生态系统与火灾之间的动态关系、展开生态系统火灾干扰研究提供了理论基础.     

森林植被恢复的理论和实践:用乡土树种重建当地森林--宫胁森林重建法介绍

介绍了国际著名植被生态学家、日本横滨国立大学教授宫胁昭 (Prof.AkiraMiyawaki)创造和倡导的造林法———环境保护林重建法 (即生态造林法 ,简称宫胁造林法 )。本方法的创新和重要之处就是将植被生态学理论应用于森林生态系统恢复并取得成功。该方法依据潜在自然植被和演替理论 ,提倡和强调用乡土树种重建乡土森林植被 (Nativeforestwithnativetrees ) ,目的是能够在较短的时间内恢复当地森林生态系统。用宫胁方法重建环境保护林 ,在日本已经有 60 0多个成功的例子 ,在马来西亚、泰国、巴西、智利和中国等国家用该方法重建热带雨林、常绿阔叶林、落叶阔叶林 ,也有 1 0多个成功实例。宫胁法对于中国的森林植被恢复和重建很有借鉴和帮助     

长白山阔叶红松林的生态价位

森林生态系统的众多服务功能在近年来受到国际社会的广泛关注,生态系统服务评价方法和案例在国内外也有很多研究.在我国实施天然林保护工程的背景下,基于生态系统服务评价的思路,提出生态价位的相关概念和等级划分方法,并以长白山阔叶红松林为对象,进行了初步研究.生态价位是某生态系统的生态系统服务价值的大小程度,根据现实情况和研究目的不同,具体可以衍生出基本生态价位、现实生态价位、潜在生态价位及生态价位差的概念.应用这一组概念,不通过直接评价某一类型或某一地区的生态系统的各种服务价值,而是以相对比较的方式说明研究对象的生态价值的大小程度和分布特征.在长白山自然保护区和森林资源保护较好的两个林场范围内,选取不同群落和物理环境特征的典型阔叶红松林生态系统样地进行了调查,并对劲松林场进行区域性生态系统调查.研究结果表明在自然状态下,阔叶红松林的生态价位可以用基本生态价位表示,采用群落生物量作为基本生态价位的划分标准,分为4级BEVL Ⅰ,群落生物量0～120 t/hm2;BEVL Ⅱ,群落生物量120～240 t/hm2; BEVL Ⅲ, 群落生物量240～360 t/hm2; BEVL Ⅳ, 群落生物量>360 t/hm2;对受到人为干扰的阔叶红松林,则根据其所处物理环境、群落结构组成及人为干扰程度3方面8个主要因子,采用层次分析法得到森林生态系统服务价值综合指数(EI),据此将现实生态价位划分为3级REVL Ⅰ,综合指数1.000～1.874,REVL Ⅱ,综合指数1.874～2.749;REVL Ⅲ,综合指数2.749～3.623;对于由于人为干扰造成的生态系统质量下降的阔叶红松林,在计算综合指标的过程中假定群落结构组成处于最佳状态而无人为干扰,根据上面标准,可划分潜在态价位等级PEVL并计算生态价位差DEVL,据此分析造成生态价位下降的原因及相应的管理技术;在区域尺度,通过趋势面分析技术,将样地点的现实和潜在生态价位等级扩展到整个调查区域,从而可以分析区域生态系统服务下降的程度并提出相应的经营规划和管理对策.对典型样地的计算表明生态价位差与现实生态价位评价指数的比值最高达28.9%,该类型的生态系统服务价值可提高的空间巨大;对区域生态价位变化的分析表明,由于不合理人为干扰的存在,40%以上立地的生态价位等级发生改变,大大降低了该地区的森林生态系统的服务功能.对生态价位假说的初步研究为长白山阔叶红松林的保护和经营提供了一条新思路.     

中国植被分类系统改进及命名探讨

综合世界植被和中国植被的分类进展,以群落外貌、结构、动态、种类组成、成因和生境相结合为依据,提出一个新改进的中国植被分类系统。该分类系统仍坚持将植被型(Vegetation type)、群系(Alliance)和群丛(Associaton)作为植被分类的基本等级,但群系的英文建议用"Alliance",而不用"Formation"。植被型以上设置植被纲(Class of vegetation types)、植被亚纲(Subclass of vegetation types)和植被型组(Group of vegetation types)作为辅助分类单位,植被型以下建议不设过多的分类辅助等级。我们将自然植被分类系统的高级分类单位分为3个植被纲,7个植被亚纲,12个植被型组,76个植被型。植被型等级编排了分类代码。新改进的分类系统与中国植被1980分类系统的主要区别是:将冻原、荒漠、沼泽分别作为一种植被类型的生长环境,而非作为一种植被类型来看待,以示与地貌学和自然地理学相关概念区分;新增簇生叶类植被亚纲和相关植被型,将竹类分别归并到森林植被和灌丛植被相关等级;依据草本植物的生态类型、植被成因及其动态,将草本植被分成草原、草甸和草丛3个植被型组。植被命名的方法作为植被分类的重要内容之一,也在文中进行了重点探讨。     

气候变化下中国潜在植被演替及其敏感性

潜在植被的研究能够真实反映气候条件对植被形态变化的影响,是植被-环境分类与关系研究的起点,也是全球变化与陆地生态系统研究的关键,对区域植被生态的恢复和重建具有重要的指导意义。本研究基于综合顺序分类系统,对过去30年(1986—2015年)和IPCC5发布的RCP4.5情景下未来3个时期(2030s、2050s和2080s)潜在植被的空间分布进行了GIS模拟,并分析了潜在植被对气候变化响应的敏感性。结果表明:(1)中国分布的潜在植被类型数量及各类在不同时期所占比例均存在差异,同时炎热极干热带荒漠类(VIIA)为各个时期共同缺失的潜在植被类型。(2)潜在植被的分布面积整体上呈现出冷干型潜在植被类型面积逐渐减少、暖湿型潜在植被类型面积逐渐增加的趋势,具体表现为扩展型、缩减型和波动型3类;潜在植被类组的重心发生了不同方向、不同距离的移动变化。(3)中国潜在植被对气候变化的响应存在敏感性差异,其空间分布形态总体呈现出不同敏感性程度的区域相间分布的特点。敏感性高的区域、敏感性较高的区域和敏感性较低的区域分别占国土总面积的2.28%、14.39%和43.82%。     

试论生态分类系统在我国天然林保护与经营中的应用

我国林业的发展正面临前所未有的机遇和挑战,现有资料表明,一方面,我国林业的宏观政策以及森林的采伐更新过程缺乏基本生态学原理的支持;另一方面,仅研究生态学理论还不够,还要研究生态学理论转化为生产力的工具,生产态分类系统是确定、描述和纵制生态系统类型图的方法。应用这种多层次系统的目的是用图的形式是把森景观的生物和环境特征抽象化,综合化、标准化和整体化,以实现生态系统管理的目标。通过纵绘制各种景观特征、林业人员可以根据土地承载力及适应性 确定森林的经营方向和经营措施,生态分类系统在吉林省东部针阔混交林区试验应用。     

气候变化、林火和营林措施对寒温带典型森林生态弹性的影响

生态弹性是森林生态系统在遭受外在扰动后恢复到稳定状态的能力,是森林资源可持续发展的重要目标之一,且森林生态弹性对诸如气候变化、林火和营林措施等外部因子的影响较为敏感.探究这些外部因子对森林生态弹性的影响在未来森林生态系统管理方面有重要意义.本研究首先从森林组成、结构和功能等方面选取指标因子并估算了森林生态弹性值,然后运用LANDIS PRO模型,模拟气候变化、林火干扰和营林措施等对寒温带典型森林生态弹性的影响,并探讨了当前抚育采伐方案在未来气候下的可持续性.结果表明: 模型初始化的2000年林分密度和胸高断面积与2000年真实景观较为吻合,模拟的2010年森林景观与野外调查数据无明显差异,基于当前林火干扰状况的模拟结果与火烧迹地调查数据基本匹配,说明林火模块能很好地模拟当前研究区林火发生状况.林火干扰增加30%将会使该区模拟期内景观水平上森林生态弹性提高15.7%～40.8%,而林火干扰增加200%则会降低该区4.4%～24.6%的森林生态弹性.短期和中期林火干扰增加对森林生态弹性的影响大于气候变化的影响.与当前预案相比,B1气候(林火增加30%预案)和A2气候(林火增加200%预案)对整个模拟阶段景观尺度森林生态弹性的影响分别处于-15.9%～38.9%和-60.4%～34.8%范围内.与无采伐预案相比,B1和A2气候下在整个模拟时期内若继续实施当前抚育采伐方案,将不利于景观水平森林生态弹性的提高.在B1气候(林火增加30%预案)下,在各模拟时期内无需实施任何营林措施;而在A2气候(林火增加200%预案)下,建议实施中、高强度种植的营林措施以提升景观水平森林生态弹性.     

Assessing the effect of EWDP on vegetation restoration by remote sensing in the lower reaches of Tarim River

In this study, effect of ecological water diversion on vegetation restoration in the lower reaches of Tarim River is assessed by coupling remote sensing techniques and a field-based survey. Land use/cover and fractional vegetation coverage (Fvc) maps derived from remote sensing images, ground validation data, and hydrological observation data are adopted to analyze the responses of Ecological Water Diversion Project (EWDP). The results indicate that, the EWDP has showed a positive effect on vegetation restoration in the lower part of Tarim Basin. During 2001 to 2013, transformation from unused land to nature vegetation (i.e. forest land, grassland and scrubland) was the major process of land use/cover change; the area of natural vegetation showed a 4.7% increase, and the area of unused land reduced by 6.8%. Landscape patch size was decreased, the degree of fragmentation and diversity of landscape was increased, and landscape structure in the study area became more complex. Moreover, vegetation coverage promoted from 2001 to 2013; average Fvc in 2013 was 1.5 times greater than that in 2001. The results can provide not only an accurate assessment for the EWDP, but also a visual insight for the water resources management practices in the study area, such that the sustainability for local ecosystem can be facilitated.     

Overstory species composition of naturally regenerated clearcuts in an ecological classification framework

Multifactor ecological classification systems are being developed for many regions. An element of these systems not yet well understood is how disturbances, clearcutting in this instance, may alter the vegetative component of the classification units at the stand and landscape levels. We sampled 1,096 plots in 21–35 year old naturally regenerated clearcuts on the Hoosier National Forest (HNF) in south-central Indiana, USA. We examined overstory species composition of clearcut plots in comparison to reference plots (80+ years old), both within and among six Ecological Landtype Phases (ELTPs) of two ecological sections using non-metric multidimensional scaling and non-metric multi-response permutation procedures. Clearcutting drastically changed species composition in comparison to reference plots within ELTPs ranging from mixed oak-dominated ridges and slopes to bottomland, cove hardwood communities; Quercus species on ridges and slopes were replaced by Liriodendron tulipifera L. and, to a lesser degree, Prunus serotina Ehrh. and Acer rubrum L., in ELTPs of both sections. Contrasts of overstory species composition of reference plots exhibited differences among ELTPs, but clearcut plots showed mixed results and indicated very similar species composition across all ELTPs. Autogenic factors are likely the main drivers of overstory composition of clearcut sites. Species composition of ELTPs will continue to develop in response to autogenic and allogenic factors over time, and differences among ELTPs may emerge in later stages of stand development as the effects of allogenic factors accumulate. It is expected that L. tulipifera, a long-lived species, will be a dominant species in terms of basal area and density of all ELTPs in mature stands. Classification systems not designed to deal with changes related to disturbance and a failure to predict successional pathways after disturbance may limit their usefulness as a management tool in terms of overstory vegetation. For ecological classification systems to be fully effective, we must better understand the role of disturbance in ecosystem function at many different scales and integrate that knowledge into our decision-making and planning regimes to establish realistic and attainable objectives at multiple scales.     

Ecosystem classification and inventory maps as surrogates for ground beetle assemblages in boreal forest

Aims We compare performance of ecosystem classification maps and provincial forest inventory data derived from air photography in reflecting ground beetle (Coleoptera: Carabidae) biodiversity patterns that are related to the forest canopy mosaic. Our biodiversity surrogacy model based on remotely sensed tree canopy cover is validated against field-collected ground data.Methods We used a systematic sampling grid of 198 sites, covering 84 km 2 of boreal mixedwood forest in northwestern Alberta, Canada. For every site, we determined tree basal area, characterized the ground beetle assemblage and obtained corresponding provincial forest inventory and ecosystem classification information. We used variation partitioning, ordination and misclassification matrices to compare beetle biodiversity patterns explained by alternative databases and to determine model biases originating from air photo-interpretation.Important findings Ecosystem classification data performed better than canopy cover derived from forest inventory maps in describing ground beetle biodiversity patterns. The biodiversity surrogacy models based on provincial forest inventory maps and field survey generally detected similar patterns but inaccuracies in air photo-interpretation of relative canopy cover led to differences between the two models. Compared to field survey data, air photo-interpretation tended to confuse two Picea species and two Populus species present and homogenize stand mixtures. This generated divergence in models of ecological association used to predict the relationship between ground beetle assemblages and tree canopy cover. Combination of relative canopy cover from provincial inventory with other geo-referenced land variables to produce the ecosystem classification maps improved biodiversity predictive power. The association observed between uncommon surrogates and uncommon ground beetle species emphasizes the benefits of detecting these surrogates as a part of landscape management. In order to complement conservation efforts established in protected areas, accurate, high resolution, wide ranging and spatially explicit knowledge of landscapes under management is primordial in order to apply effective biodiversity conservation strategies at the stand level as required in the extensively harvested portion of the boreal forest. In development of these strategies, an in-depth understanding of vegetation is key.     

Compensatory mechanisms of central U.S. hardwood forest communities in a changing environment

Although it is known that forest productivity is highly correlated with canopy leaf area, the influence of environmental gradients within a forest on leaf area-productivity relationships has not been well-documented, particularly for mixed-species forests. The present study was conducted to define the mechanisms by which Central Hardwood forest communities respond to changes in environment. Ecological Land Type Phases (ELTPs) of the Central Hardwood region, delineated by soils, topography, and indicator vegetation, provided a framework to examine the impacts of environmental gradients on leaf area-productivity relationships at a landscape level. Three ELTPs- (1) Quercus prinus / Carex picta-Vaccinium, Dry slope, (2) Quercus alba-Acer saccharum / Parthenocissus, Dry-Mesic Slope, and (3) Fagus-Acer saccharum / Arisaema, Mesic Slope- were selected and stratified into three slope positions viz. the upper edge of the community, the middle or center of the community on the slope, and the lower edge of the community. Circular plots of 0.02 ha in size were established for sampling. Standing stock (basal area, volume, and biomass), annual production, leaf area index, and growth efficiency were determined for each slope position and examined to determine the mechanisms and trends for community change across slope positions. Among the three communities studied, dry slopes compensated for drier conditions through both a shift in species composition and reduced annual production. Dry-mesic slopes exhibited adaptation only through changing species composition whereas mesic slopes compensated for drier conditions primarily through reduction in annual production. These results indicate that mixed-species forest communities adjust to environmental gradients through several mechanisms and that the relative importance of these mechanisms changes with community type.     

Impacts of forest cover change on ecosystem services in high Andean mountains

Land conversion affects the delivery of ecosystem goods and services. In this study, we used a 50 years time series of land cover maps to assess the potential impacts of forest cover changes on ecosystem services. A multi-source data integration strategy was followed to reduce inconsistencies in land cover change detection that result from the comparison of historical aerial photographs and satellite images. Our forest cover change analysis highlighted a shift from net deforestation to net reforestation in the early 1990s, consistent with the forest transition theory. When taking the nature of forest cover changes into account, our data show that the areal increase of the forested area was not associated with an improvement in ecological conditions. The overall capacity of the landscape to deliver ecosystem services dropped steadily by 16% over the 50 years’ study period. Conversion of native forests to agricultural land was associated with the strongest decline in ecosystem services. Conversion of natural grasslands into pine plantations mostly led to negative and probably irreversible impacts on the delivery of ecosystem services. Conversion of degraded agricultural lands into pine plantations led to an improvement in ecological conditions. An effective spatial targeting of forestation programs has the potential to maximize the environmental benefits that forest plantations may offer while minimizing their environmental harm.     

面向生态系统服务的森林生态系统经营:现状、挑战与展望

森林生态系统是地球陆地生态系统的主体,它具有很高的生物生产力和生物量以及丰富的生物多样性,对全球生态系统和人类经济社会发展起着至关重要和无可替代的作用。伴随着人口的不断增长和经济社会的迅猛发展,对森林资源和森林生态系统服务的需求不断高涨,而且人类对森林资源价值的认识也发生了很大程度的改变。推进森林资源可持续经营,增加森林总量、提高森林质量、增强生态功能,已成为中国林业可持续发展乃至推进中国生态文明建设和建设美丽中国的战略任务。本文全面综述了森林生态系统经营发展历程,分析了森林生态系统经营的现状和存在问题,在此基础上,提出整合基于生态系统管理与满足现代人类福祉对森林多重需求的新的森林生态系统经营理念,面向生态系统服务的森林生态系统经营理念是未来的发展趋势。森林经营发展战略表现为:1)从单纯的森林面积数量扩张,转变到提高单位面积的森林生产力和森林质量;2)从单一追求木材生产逐步转变为多目标经营,将森林林产品单一的经营目标转变为广泛的生态、经济和社会等多目标经营;3)森林经营重点从林分水平转变为森林景观的经营,强调森林景观的时空异质性和动态变化,权衡和协同多种生态系统的服务功能,倡导森林景观的多样性和连通性,提高森林与其它土地利用模式镶嵌构成的复合景观的可持续性和稳定性,增强森林生态系统对气候变化影响的适应能力;4)森林生态系统经营将从依赖传统经验的主观决策转变为信息化、数字化和智能化的决策,发展森林生态系统经营决策支持系统和森林景观恢复与空间经营规划系统。