植物种群表观竞争机制及其研究进展

植物表观竞争既影响群落结构和组成,也与生态系统功能密切相关。目前,国内尚缺乏对植物表观竞争的实验研究和机制探索。对植物表观竞争概念和研究进展进行了系统梳理和阶段性总结,分析了草食动物为媒介的表观竞争主要通过食物和生境介导植物竞争过程,以及ELP-采食者关系对表观竞争的影响;植物参与的表观竞争通常与资源竞争共同作用;AM真菌为媒介的表观竞争不仅受到宿主植物菌根依赖性的影响,还与AM真菌对资源的需求和环境资源供给状况有密切关系。未来研究既要注重实验设计的合理性,也要考虑测定方法和评价参数的有效性;重视植物群落和生态系统水平上表观竞争的功能研究。这不仅能够为植物群落结构和物种共存提供机制性解释,而且能够丰富经典的植物竞争理论和多营养级相互作用的食物网理论。     

行为生态学(四):觅食行为的可变性

动物的觅食方式取决于食物的种类和食物的性质,因此动物寻找食物和获取食物的效率,以及它们之间为食物而竞争的激烈程度都依食物的种类而转移。不同的食物资源对捕食压力的敏感程度也大不相同,而且,食物资源的利用还同气候和其他环境因素有关。     

环境因子对荒漠沙蜥种群密度影响的研究

本文研究人类改造荒漠的活动,植被,潜在的可利用的食物资源,竞争种的密度,土壤理化性质等坏境因子对荒漠沙蜥种群密度的影响。结果说明：人类的活动对沙蜥种群密度没有显著影响;决定沙蜥种群密度的主导因子是潜在的可利用的食物资源,植被,土壤含水量,竞争种的密度。这些因子的任何改变都能改变沙蜥的种群密度,均具有调节种群的作用。     

贵州麻阳河地区野生黑叶猴与同域放养山羊冬季食物重叠的初步分析

于2009年12月～2010年2月采用瞬时扫描取样法对贵州麻阳河自然保护区的5个黑叶猴Trachypithecus francoisi猴群以及同域放养的山羊羊群的取食行为进行观察记录,并对两者的取食数据进行比较分析,以期了解该地区黑叶猴与放养山羊在食物资源最为匮乏的冬季的资源竞争关系,为黑叶猴的保护管理提供科学依据.研究结果表明:黑叶猴冬季取食植物67种,放养山羊同期取食植物44种,两者食物重叠26种;对26种重叠食物的采食分别占黑叶猴与放养山羊冬季取食时间的76.2％与22.0％;黑叶猴冬季采食的19种主要食物(＞1％冬季采食时间)中,有14种为放养山羊所采食,占黑叶猴与山羊冬季采食时间的71.7％与17.8％;黑叶猴与山羊冬季食物生态位宽度分别为0.68与0.39,两者的冬季食物生态位重叠指数C=0.74.表明贵州麻阳河地区黑叶猴与同域放养山羊在食物最为匮乏的冬季存在较为激烈的食物资源竞争关系.     

食物丰度对宽鳍鱲的能量代谢、个性和集群行为的影响

水生生境中的食物资源经常变化,鱼类的能量代谢和行为随食物丰度改变的可塑性调节具有重要的进化和生态意义。为考察食物丰度对机体行为和代谢的影响,以雌性宽鳍鱲（Zacco Platypus）为实验对象,分别测定实验鱼在高、低食物丰度组4周喂养期前后的标准代谢率（Standard metabolic rate,SMR）、个性及集群行为。研究发现：（1）经4周喂养,高食物丰度组的体重和SMR上升,而低食物丰度组维持不变,喂养期结束时高食物丰度组的体重和SMR均显著大于低食物丰度组;（2）食物丰度对个性没有显著影响,但集群时,低食物丰度组活跃性较高,凝聚力较低;（3）高食物丰度下SMR保持稳定,低食物丰度下SMR不稳定。研究表明：宽鳍鱲的个性不受食物丰度影响;但食物丰度减少导致能量代谢下降、鱼群活跃性上升和凝聚力下降,可能与食物丰度较低时代谢的适应性下调和食物资源竞争加剧导致的觅食活动需求上升相关。     

首次发现动植物间竞争

亲缘关系相近的物种经常会为了获取资源而相互争夺,然而,研究人员发现一个不同寻常的案例：植物茅膏菜也会为了食物与动物狼蛛展开竞争。     

三种荒漠晰蜴空间和营养生态位研究

同一荒漠晰蜴群落中,荒漠沙晰和虫纹麻晰,密点麻晰占不有同有空间生态位,其间几乎不存在竞争。两个近缘种虽然占有相同空间生态位,但个体大的密点麻晰食物种类特化,个体小的虫纹麻晰偏重于利用较小的食物资源,占有相同空间生态位的近缘种,营养生态位向不同方向特化,利用不同的食物资源,从而在竞争中共存,保持群落结构的稳定性。     

东海和黄海主要鱼类的食物竞争

以2000年和2001年在东、黄海两次大面调查所收集的、占总生物量90%的重要生物种类中的鱼类为研究对象,通过分析胃含物获得各饵料成分的重量百分比,用Pianka(1973)提出的公式计算的饵料重叠系数分析了东、黄海主要鱼类之间的食物竞争状况,以了解食物竞争与种群变动和优势种交替之间的相互关系。结果表明:黄海主要鱼类的食物竞争对象主要为太平洋磷虾、脊腹褐虾和,东海主要鱼类的食物竞争对象主要为太平洋磷虾、细条天竺鱼、发光鲷、、七星底灯鱼和带鱼。东、黄海鱼类通过摄食种类、摄食食物大小、摄食时间和栖息地的分化来减少食物竞争,从而维持群落结构的动态平衡。渔业资源群落结构的变化将导致食物竞争状况发生改变;鱼类食物竞争状况也会影响种群动态,但要确定食物竞争程度还需进一步深入研究     

嫩江下游人工林中黑线姬鼠与黑线仓鼠的消化道形态及其取食策略

对嫩江下游流域人工林区两同域共存优势种黑线姬鼠东北亚种(Apodemus agrarius mantchuricus)与黑线仓鼠三江平原亚种(Cricetulus barabensis manchuricus)夏季主要食物组成及消化道形态结构的适应性变化进行了比较分析.二者均以当年生植物嫩茎、叶、种子及昆虫为主要取食对象,但黑线姬鼠对茎和叶的采食频次小于黑线仓鼠,而种子、根和昆虫类在黑线姬鼠的食物中出现的频次则相对较高.与食物组成相适应,黑线仓鼠的胃、盲肠和大肠在长度及重量上均显著大于黑线姬鼠,这是黑线仓鼠对高纤维和低蛋白食物的适应性调整.研究结果表明,两种啮齿动物在长期的进化中产生了不同的食物资源利用模式,而其消化道形态结构的变化则可能是其在长期的种间竞争和进化压力下进行食物资源分享的一种功能性反应.     

同域分布马鹿与中华斑羚的冬夏季食物构成比较

同域分布的有蹄类动物面临食物资源竞争,而食物又是影响野生动物生存的关键因子之一,研究不同种类动物的食物构成可以反映其对栖息地条件的适应程度。本研究通过粪便显微分析法,对内蒙古赛罕乌拉国家级自然保护区马鹿（Cervus elaphus）和中华斑羚（Naemorhedus griseus）的冬、夏季食物构成进行比较分析。结果显示,马鹿在夏季取食22科48种植物,中华斑羚取食15科31种植物;在冬季,马鹿取食17科32种植物,中华斑羚取食13科23种植物。Pianka重叠指数显示,夏季时马鹿与中华斑羚食物重叠度为85.4%,冬季重叠度为77.6%。使用Levins指数计算,夏季时马鹿与中华斑羚的营养生态位分别是13.71和5.34,冬季时分别是11.08和4.02。在同一季节,马鹿取食植物的丰富度和均匀度均大于中华斑羚。本研究结果表明,马鹿与中华斑羚的食物选择对季节性食物资源变化具有适应性,但马鹿对环境的适应性高于中华斑羚;鉴于马鹿的分布范围广、种群数量多,建议在对物种与栖息地的保护中侧重于中华斑羚。     

Ecological and Geographical Reasons for the Variation of Digestive Tract Length in Anurans

Changes of environmental conditions can shape organs size evolution in animal kingdoms. In particular, environmental changes lead to difference in food resources between different habitats, thereby affecting individual's energy intake and allocation. The digestive theory states that animals consuming food with low contents of digestible materials should result in increasing gut length. In this study, to test the hypothesis of digestive theory, we studied ecological and geographical reasons for variation in digestive tract length among 35 species of anurans distributing in different altitude and latitude. The results showed that ecological type significantly affected digestive tract length among species, with aquatic and terrestrial species having longer digestive tract than arboreal ones. Latitude was positively correlated with digestive tract length. However, altitude, as well as monthly mean temperature and precipitation, did not correlate with digestive tract length among species. Our findings suggest that aquatic and terrestrial species might forage less digestible materials than arboreal species, thereby displaying relatively longer digestive tract than arboreal species.     

Pond canopy cover: a resource gradient for anuran larvae

1. The gradient in pond canopy cover strongly influences freshwater species distributions. This study tested the effects of canopy cover on the performance of two species of larval anurans, a canopy cover generalist (Rana sylvatica, the wood frog) and an open‐canopy specialist (R. pipiens, the leopard frog), and tested which factors co‐varying with canopy cover mediate these effects. 2. A field transplant experiment demonstrated that canopy cover had negative performance effects on both species. However, leopard frogs, which grow faster than wood frogs in open‐canopy ponds, were more strongly affected by closed‐canopy pond conditions. 3. Closed‐canopy ponds had lower temperature, dissolved oxygen (DO), and food nutritional quality as indicated by carbon‐to‐nitrogen ratio (C : N) analysis of field‐sampled food types, and of gut contents of transplanted larvae. 4. Laboratory experiments demonstrated that higher temperature and food quality but not DO substantially increased larval growth. However, only food quality increased growth rates of leopard frogs more than wood frogs. 5. The strong correlation of growth rates to gut content C : N in the field, and the similarity of growth curves as a function of resource quality in the field and laboratory, strongly suggest that resources are of primary importance in mediating intraspecific, and especially interspecific differences in performance across the canopy cover gradient.     

Food availability determines the response to pond desiccation in anuran tadpoles

Food availability and pond desiccation are two of the most studied factors that condition amphibian metamorphosis. It is well known that, when food is abundant, organisms undergo metamorphosis early and when they are relatively large. The capability of anurans to accelerate their developmental rate in response to desiccation is also common knowledge. These two variables must act together in nature, since we know that, as a pond dries, the per capita resources decrease. We conduct an experiment to evaluate the effects of desiccation and food availability separately and in combination in tadpoles of the painted frog (Discoglossus pictus). We demonstrate that food deprivation leads to slow growth rates, which delay metamorphosis and produce smaller size and weight. The capability to accelerate metamorphosis when facing a drying pond is also confirmed, but, nevertheless, with factor interaction (when the pool is drying and resources are scarce) the capacity to respond to desiccation is lost. In addition, slow drying rates are shown to be stressful situations, but not enough to provoke a shortening of the larval period; in fact, the larval period becomes longer. We also demonstrate that the interaction of these factors changes the allometric relationship of different parts of the hind limb, which has implications for the biomechanics of jumping. Due to low mortality rates and an adequate response to both environmental factors, we expect D. pictus to have a great invasive potential in its new Mediterranean distribution area, where lots of temporary and ephemeral ponds are present.     

Front Cover

Among the Amphibia, cannibalism is most commonly associated with tadpole species that exploit ephemeral systems. This behaviour may confer significant fitness benefits to those that cannibalise, given that these systems generally possess limited food resources, but will incur significant fitness costs to the cannibalised. Herein, we describe cannibalism of recently oviposited eggs of the sandpaper frog (Lechriodus fletcheri) by conspecific tadpoles as a likely adaptation to limited nutrient availability within highly ephemeral pools in which it is an obligate breeder. Field observations revealed L. fletcheri tadpoles actively preyed on conspecific eggs of recently oviposited spawn bodies, which were commonly consumed whole. When tadpoles were exposed to spawn for the first time in laboratory trials, they quickly engaged in extended periods of consumption, gorging themselves until they appeared to be full. We found this behaviour to be common in the field and suggest that conspecific eggs form a significant food resource for tadpoles of this species in the otherwise nutrient-poor systems in which they breed. This feeding strategy might be common among anurans exploiting temporary aquatic systems that are nutrient-poor and gives rise to many questions surrounding how individuals can utilise cannibalism to increase their fitness while simultaneously avoiding becoming victims of this behaviour themselves.     

Effect of changes in resource level on age and size at metamorphosis in Hyla squirella

Recent experiments suggest that timing of metamorphosis is fixed during development in some anurans, insects, and freshwater invertebrates. Yet, these experiments do not exclude a growth rate optimization model for the timing of metamorphosis. I manipulated food resources available to larvae of squirrel treefrogs (Hyla squirella) to determine if there is a loss of plasticity in duration of larval period during development and to critically test growth rate models for the timing of metamorphosis. Size-specific resource levels for individual tadpoles were switched from low to high or high to low at three developmental stages spaced throughout larval development. The effects of changes in resource availability on larval period and mass at metamorphosis were measured. Switching food levels after late limb bud development did not significantly affect larval period in comparison to constant food level treatments. Therefore, developmental rate in H. squirella is better described by a fixed developmental rate model, rather than a growth rate optimization model. The timing of fixation of developmental rate in H. squirella is similar to that found in other anuran species, suggesting a taxonomically widespread developmental constraint on the plasticity of larval period duration. Mass at metamorphosis was not significantly affected by the timing of changes in food levels; the amount of food available later in development determined the size at metamorphosis. Larval period and mass at metamorphosis were negatively correlated in only one of two experiments, which contrasts with the common assumption of a phenotypic trade-off between decreased larval period and increased mass at metamorphosis. Received: 19 August 1996 / Accepted: 20 June 1997     

Revisiting the contribution of larval characters to an analysis of phylogenetic relationships of basal anurans

The higher-level relationships of anurans have been explored by numerous studies, producing a variety of hypotheses. The relationships of the basal anurans ('archaeobatrachians') are, however, poorly known . In part, this may be because the adult morphology of basal anurans is derived and therefore may not provide suitable phylogenetic signal. Recently, several authors have shown the phylogenetic utility of information derived from anuran larvae. In this paper we conduct separate and combined analyses of anuran relationships based on adult and larval morphology. Our combined results suggest that anurans form two major clades − the pipoids and all other frogs. Evidence also suggests that, taken together, Neobatrachia and Pelobatoidea form a monophyletic group. We discuss support for various groupings as shown by the different data sets. We also comment on the consequences of our phylogenetic hypothesis for the interpretation of reduction of vertebral elements and evolution of Orton's tadpole types in anurans.  © 2003 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2003, 139 , 129−155.     

“KIN RECOGNITION” AMONG SPADEFOOT TOAD TADPOLES: A SIDE-EFFECT OF HABITAT SELECTION?

Many animals modify their behavior toward unfamiliar conspecifics as a function of their genetic relatedness. A fundamental problem of any kin recognition study is determining what is being recognized and why. For anuran tadpoles, the predominant view is that associating with relatives is kin-selected because these relatives may thereby accrue benefits through increased growth or predation avoidance. An alternative view is that kin associations are simply a side-effect of habitat selection and thus do not represent attempts to identify kin per se. In the laboratory, spadefoot toad tadpoles (Scaphiopus multiplicatus) preferentially associated with unfamiliar siblings over unfamiliar nonsiblings, as do other anurans. However, same age tadpoles also were more likely to orient toward unfamiliar nonsiblings reared on the same food (familiar food) than toward unfamiliar siblings that were reared on unfamiliar food. These results, together with the results of previous tadpole kin recognition studies, suggest that tadpoles orient toward cues learned early in ontogeny, regardless of the cues' source. Tadpoles that preferentially associated with cues learned from their environment at birth would tend to be philopatric. Censuses of 14 natural ponds revealed that tadpole density remained greatest near oviposition sites until four days before metamorphosis. Tadpole philopatry may be advantageous: tadpoles restricted to their natal site had greater growth and survivorship than did their siblings restricted to randomly selected sites elsewhere within the same pond. Thus kin affiliative tendency observed in the laboratory in this and perhaps other species of anurans may be a byproduct of habitat selection. Since kin discrimination in animals is most commonly assayed as orientation toward kin, it follows that many examples of “kin recognition” may not represent true attempts to identify kin as such, but rather may reflect some other recognition system that is under entirely different selective pressures.     

Neotropical tadpoles influence stream benthos: evidence for the ecological consequences of decline in amphibian populations

1. Few studies have assessed the role of tadpoles in tropical streams, although they are often abundant and conspicuous components of these systems. Moreover, amphibian populations are declining around the globe, particularly stream‐dwelling species in tropical uplands, and the ecological consequences of these losses are not understood. 2. We chose a stream in the central Panamanian highlands, which has an intact fauna of stream‐breeding anurans, to examine the ecological consequences of amphibian losses. This site differs dramatically from sites in nearby western Panama and Costa Rica where anuran diversity and abundance have declined greatly in the last two decades. 3. We used an underwater electric field to create tadpole exclosures in runs, so that we could evaluate their influence on sediment dynamics and the abundance and community structure of algae and aquatic insects. Tadpoles reduced total sediments and both organic and inorganic fractions on substrata. Tadpoles also reduced algal abundance on substrata by approximately 50% and decreased algal biovolume. Gut content analyses showed that tadpoles consumed algae and sediments and we could see that algae and sediments were also displaced through bioturbation. 4. Atelopus zeteki, Rana warszewitschii, and Hyla spp. were the dominant larval anurans responsible for the effects observed. Visual surveys indicated that the densities of these taxa ranged from 23 (R. warszewitschii and Hyla spp. combined) to 43 m^?2 (A. zeteki) in runs. 5. The abundance of baetid mayflies was lower in tadpole exclosures compared with controls, and this was attributed to tadpoles facilitating mayfly feeding by removing sediments and exposing underlying periphyton. 6. Tadpoles affect the abundance and diversity of basal resources and other primary consumers, and thus influence food web dynamics and energy flow in these tropical streams. Catastrophic decline in stream‐breeding anuran populations will influence the structure and function of neotropical stream ecosystems.     

Selecting a Hiding Place: Anuran Diversity and the use of Bromeliads in a Threatened Coastal Sand Dune Habitat in Brazil

Among vertebrates, anuran amphibians represent the highest number of species associated with bromeliads and possess a range of ecological, behavioral, and morphological specializations to life in these plants. Despite the importance of bromeliads as biodiversity amplifiers, and their diversity in some habitats, studies of the relationship between anurans and these plants are scarce in Brazil. Here, we investigated the way anurans select and use bromeliads in a threatened coastal habitat. We analyzed data from 23 standardized samples of the anurans associated with the bromeliad Neoregelia cruenta in the Restinga de Maricá, State of Rio de Janeiro, Southeastern Brazil. We found nine anuran species using these bromeliads, representing the highest richness reported for a Brazilian restinga. We identified a general pattern of bromeliad usage, where plants located at the edges of scrub patches (exposed to the sun) were more frequently occupied by anurans than those located more to the center (in the shade). There is strong evidence of an active selective process based on the quality of the water stored in the rosette, which differs between plants depending on their position in the scrub patch. Although the number of individuals varied during the period of study, the frequency of bromeliads used was constant, indicating that plant occupation follows a regular pattern throughout the year. Furthermore, the high frequency of bromeliads used by anurans during the whole year highlights the importance of considering these plants in developing conservation programs concerning the protection of anurans.     

The otic region of Doleserpeton (Temnospondyli) and its implications for the evolutionary origin of frogs

There is increasing evidence that the Palaeozoic temnospondyl amphibians had a frog‐like tympanic hearing system. For this reason, the otic region of Doleserpeton is described and compared with modern anurans. The otic capsules are expanded laterally and ventrally relative to other temnospondyls. The opisthotic has a bulbous ventral region resembling the ventrolateral ledge in modern frogs. Two lateral processes are located on the paroccipital process. Comparison with the condition in modern anurans with a tympanic hearing system shows that this may have been the attachment site for the tympanic annulus. Parts of the osseous labyrinth are also described. The inner ear shows numerous features resembling the condition found in frogs. These include strong evidence for the presence of a lissamphibian‐type perilymphatic duct most closely resembling that of anurans. This is the first time such a perilymphatic system has been described in any Palaezoic form. The posterior part of the braincase shows a jugular foramen closely associated with the perilymphatic foramen, as in anurans. Although the distribution of these traits among other temnospondyl groups remains little known, the sum of the evidence points to affinities between anurans and temnospondyls, and adds to the evidence for a close relationship between anurans and the Permian amphibamid Doleserpeton. © 2008 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2008, 154 , 738–751.