Seeing the forest for its multiple ecosystem services: Indicators for cultural services in heterogeneous forests

The ecosystem service (ES) framework is gaining traction in ecosystem management as a means to recognize the multiple benefits that ecosystems provide. In forested ecosystems, many structural attributes (trees, understory plants and woody debris) create heterogeneous ecosystems that provide numerous ecosystem services, including many that are culturally important. However, application of the ES framework to forest management is challenged by difficulties measuring and comparing multiple ES across diverse and heterogeneous forest conditions. Indicators can help bring the ES approach to forest management by providing a means for accurate ES inventory and mapping. We measured 10 forest ES in contrasting forest types to investigate the effects of past forest harvesting in coastal temperate rainforest of Vancouver Island, BC, Canada. Our objectives were to build a systematic set of ES indicators for coastal temperate forests based on forest structural features, including trees, coarse woody debris, and understory plants. To achieve this, we 1) analyzed field data to compare the effects of forest age (old-growth vs. second-growth) and ecological site conditions (riparian vs. upland forest) on the bundle of ES provided by different forest types; and 2) worked with a local indigenous wood carver to identify attributes of cedar trees (Thuja plicata) essential for traditional uses, including canoe carving. Forest age and forest type had significant and major effects on bundles of ES. Old-growth forests provided three times higher carbon storage, nine times higher wood volume, and eighteen times higher canopy habitat services than recovering forests. Within old-growth forests, the proportion of trees suitable for traditional indigenous wood carving was significantly higher in riparian stands. Yet of 456 trees measured, only 17 were cedar with potential traditional uses. Of those, trees for canoe carving were the least frequent (n = 3), which we identified as large (>110 cm DBH) trees of exceptional quality. In general, old-growth riparian forests were a hotspot of ES, providing for example nearly three times as much carbon storage as old-growth forests on upland sites and 12 times the amount of carbon storage as found in second-growth forests on upland sites. These results indicate that typical inventories of forest ES, which usually generalize across heterogeneity, may oversimplify dramatic variations in ES bundles in forested landscapes. Our novel set of stand-level ES indicators can improve the accuracy of ES assessments, incorporate important cultural ES, and help address the role of landscape heterogeneity in influencing ES.     

Ecological indicators: Imperative to sustainable forest management

Sustainable forest management (SFM) deals with ecologically sound practices that maintain the forest ecosystem integrity, productivity, resilience and biodiversity. Ecological sustainability ensures continuing function of ecosystems which are considered as ecological life support system. Several attempts have been made world over to develop criteria and indicators, which are specific to various forestry conditions and recognized as appropriate tools for assessing and monitoring progress towards sustainable forest management. In India, the process for measuring forest sustainability has started by evolving national level set of Criteria and indicators in the form of Bhopal–India process. The Bhopal–India process specifies 8 criteria and 43 indicators. The first 4 criteria pertain exclusively to ecology with 21 related indicators. Thus, nearly half of the criteria and indicators pertain to ecological dimensions that largely govern sustainability of forests. Rest of the criteria of the base set pertains to economic and social aspects with related indicators. This provides holistic approach of monitoring the forest resources.     

Accounting for multiple ecosystem services in a simulation of land‐use decisions: Does it reduce tropical deforestation?

Conversion of tropical forests is among the primary causes of global environmental change. The loss of their important environmental services has prompted calls to integrate ecosystem services (ES) in addition to socio‐economic objectives in decision‐making. To test the effect of accounting for both ES and socio‐economic objectives in land‐use decisions, we develop a new dynamic approach to model deforestation scenarios for tropical mountain forests. We integrate multi‐objective optimization of land allocation with an innovative approach to consider uncertainty spaces for each objective. These uncertainty spaces account for potential variability among decision‐makers, who may have different expectations about the future. When optimizing only socio‐economic objectives, the model continues the past trend in deforestation (1975–2015) in the projected land‐use allocation (2015–2070). Based on indicators for biomass production, carbon storage, climate and water regulation, and soil quality, we show that considering multiple ES in addition to the socio‐economic objectives has heterogeneous effects on land‐use allocation. It saves some natural forest if the natural forest share is below 38%, and can stop deforestation once the natural forest share drops below 10%. For landscapes with high shares of forest (38%–80% in our study), accounting for multiple ES under high uncertainty of their indicators may, however, accelerate deforestation. For such multifunctional landscapes, two main effects prevail: (a) accelerated expansion of diversified non‐natural areas to elevate the levels of the indicators and (b) increased landscape diversification to maintain multiple ES, reducing the proportion of natural forest. Only when accounting for vascular plant species richness as an explicit objective in the optimization, deforestation was consistently reduced. Aiming for multifunctional landscapes may therefore conflict with the aim of reducing deforestation, which we can quantify here for the first time. Our findings are relevant for identifying types of landscapes where this conflict may arise and to better align respective policies.     

An indicator system to assess ecological integrity of managed forests

Ecological integrity of managed forests includes the ability of an ecosystem to support a community of organisms with a similar species composition and functional organization as found in nearby natural systems. We developed an indicator system for ecological integrity based on simulated natural disturbance and indicator species to test if forest condition and habitat in managed forests are similar to that found or expected in natural systems. We then applied the method in an area of the boreal forest (Ontario, Canada) where the objective of Ontario's strategic forest management planning approach is, in part, to conserve ecological integrity through the emulation of the natural disturbance process. Forest condition controls the supply of habitat to support the diversity of native organisms, and historically in boreal forests the natural disturbance process drove forest condition. We selected indicators of forest condition (landscape pattern and compositional mosaic) and habitat function (occupancy rates for a broad range of forest birds), and applied our assessment system to test whether indicators of forest condition and habitat function reflect outcomes expected if natural disturbance processes were successfully emulated. We collected occupancy data in natural and managed forest disturbance types using autonomous acoustic recorders, applied occupancy/detection modeling to estimate corrected occupancy rates (ψ), and then tested for differences in ψ between disturbance types. Some indicators of forest condition were within the range expected under natural disturbance, but we found relatively less old conifer, more young deciduous and greater edge density in managed forests relative to forests of natural disturbance origin. Most species (11 of 14) occurred with equal ψ in habitat originating from the two disturbance types. Brown creeper (Certhia americana), bay-breasted warbler (Mniotilta varia) and red-eyed vireo (Vireo olivaceus) differed between disturbance types. Brown creeper uses older conifer and occurred at lower rates in managed forest, while red-eyed vireo uses a range of deciduous forest ages, and occurred at higher rates in managed forest. Differences in quantity and/or quality of specific habitat types likely explain the responses. The results suggest what directional changes in the forest pattern and compositional mosaic would improve ecological similarity with natural systems, but also indicate what further research is required. We believe this approach to assessing ecological integrity can be adapted to study the effectiveness of conservation management strategies in other systems, and will contribute to adaptive management approaches and evidence-based policy development.     

Indicators of ecosystem services in a military Atlantic Forest area,Pernambuco—Brazil

The use of Ecosystem Services (ES) indicators can help designing, implementing and monitoring public environmental policies. Such indicators may be used as a support tool for natural resources management, like in forest areas, which are important ES providers. In this context, military areas are particularly challenging due to the nature of the activities conducted and the need to conciliate them with ecological protection, without undermining military readiness. It is argued that in addition to technical issues, considering stakeholders’ opinions is beneficial for the selection and design of ES indicators. The main aim of this research is to develop forest ES indicators supported by a participatory indicator selection process. A case study is made of an Atlantic Forest area in the Northeast of Brazil, under the jurisdiction of the Brazilian Army. To accomplish that aim, a questionnaire survey was sent to a group of stakeholders in order to evaluate an initial set of proposed 44 indicators for several forest ES. Through a weighting of stakeholders’ scores, 25 ES indicators for the Atlantic forest were obtained. The selected indicators portray the study area mainly as a provider of regulating, cultural and habitat services and less of provisioning services, which can be related with military and nature protection restrictions on the use of provisioning ES. Nevertheless, the three top-rated indicators dealt with water availability, regulation and quality (for human consumption). Together with the predominance of water-related ES that was observed (ten out of 25 indicators), this points out the relevance of forest water-related ES in the study area. On the other hand, the specificity of the military context was not clearly reflected by the indicators selected, since most of them are applicable in areas or contexts other than a military one. Alongside indicators expressing the benefits provided by nature, stakeholders’ scorings reveal recognition of the importance of biodiversity and resilience of the area. This stresses the importance of biodiversity and resilience to support ES supply, but is also linked with one of the major challenges for managing a military area with high natural value: that of conciliating military activities (that support military readiness) with nature protection. Other forest areas under military or similar particular jurisdiction, often representing a major fraction of national forests, could learn from this approach and identify areas for priority response measures. These indicators could be also a driver to increase and improve environmental management of military training activities and safeguarding natural resources in important ES providing areas like Atlantic forests.     

Enhancing the conservation status and resilience of a narrowly distributed forest: A challenge to effectively support ecosystem services in practice

The conservation and sustainable management of forests has become an important issue, especially in ecosystems where keystone species form unique and marginal forest habitats with narrow distribution. With increasing pressures and threats to nature, the establishment of Protected Areas has been recognized as a major tool for maintaining well-functioning forest ecosystems and their associated ecosystem services (ES). This study aims at assessing the changes in the status of a narrowly distributed Mediterranean forest through the perspective of land cover dynamics and the ES framework. Using the priority habitat of Cedrus brevifolia forest as a case study, the distribution of land use and land cover (LULC) was mapped and simulated, together with the supply of multiple ES before and after the implementation of conservation measures. The results prior applying the management actions revealed a general pattern of forest densification that did not act fully in favor of C. brevifolia due to competitions among forest species. From an ES viewpoint, forest densification led to landscape homogenization affecting important ES such as the increase in the supply of regulating services, and the decrease in the ability to support nursery populations and habitats. By contrast, the future simulation of LULC integrated with afforestation and thinning measures showed an expected increase in both high-density vegetation and cedar trees, benefiting multiple ES. The current findings highlight the importance of sustainable forest management in enhancing the co-occurrence of several ES and supporting the overall multi-functionality of ecosystems. The holistic approach presented in this study can offer new insights into the relation between ES and natural ecosystem and/or habitats’ management while avoiding potential negative impacts on human well-being and ecosystem resilience.     

Novel quantitative indicators to characterize the protective effect of mountain forests against rockfall

Natural hazards are frequent in mountain areas where they regularly cause casualties and damages to human infrastructures. Mountain forests contribute in mitigating these hazards, in particular rockfalls. Assessing the protective effect of a forest against rockfall is a difficult task for both forest managers and rockfall experts. Accurate and simple tools are therefore required to efficiently evaluate the level of protection that results from the presence of forest.This study defines three novel indicators to quantify the protective effect of forests against rockfalls, regarding (1) the reduction of the frequency of rockfalls, (2) the reduction of their maximum intensity, and (3) the combination of the reduction of the frequency and the energy of the rocks. The first two indicators are relevant for rockfall experts whereas the third is mostly interesting for foresters as it summarizes the protective effect of forest. The Rockyfor3D model was adapted and used to simulate rockfalls propagation on 3886 different forest stands located in all the French Alps. The results of the simulations were used to calculate the three indicators for each forest stand. Finally, the relations between the forest structures and compositions and the indicators values were investigated.Our principal result shows that only three forest characteristics are required to accurately predict the indicators and evaluate the protective level of a forest against rockfall. The two first variables correspond to the basal area and the mean diameter at breast height (DBH) of the forest stand which are two parameters commonly used by forest managers. The third characteristic is the length of forest in the maximum slope direction which can be computed with a geographic information system (GIS). The method proposed in this study is easily reproducible and is suitable to evaluate the protective effect of European mountain forests at different scales. At local scale, the proposed indicators can enrich rockfall studies in which forests are usually set aside to simplify the evaluation. Moreover, the indicators may find direct applications with foresters by allowing them to identify the protective level of their forest and consequently to adapt their management. Finally, the indicators are convenient to perform spatial analysis and produce maps of the protective effect of mountain forests that could find many applications in land settlement or evaluation of ecosystem services.     

Mapping indicator models: From intuitive problem structuring to quantified decision-making in sustainable forest management

Most commonly, sustainability indicator sets presented as lists do not take into account interactions among indicators in a systematic manner. Vice versa, existing environmental indicator systems do not provide a formalized approach for problem structuring and quantitative decision support. In this paper, techniques for considering indicator relationships are highlighted and a coupled approach between a qualitative and a quantitative method is analysed. Cognitive mapping (CM) is used for structuring indicators and three different causal maps are derived based on established sustainability concepts: (a) criteria and indicators (C&I hierarchy), (b) indicator network, and (c) Driving Force-Pressure-State-Impact-Response (DPSIR) system. These maps are transferred to the Analytic Network Process (ANP) to allow their application in multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA).In an application example, Pan-European indicators for sustainable forest management (SFM) are utilized in an ANP-based assessment. The effects of the model structure on the overall evaluation result are demonstrated by means of three reporting periods on Austrian forestry.In a comparative analysis of CM and ANP it is tested whether their measures of indicator significance do correspond. Both centrality in CM and single limited priorities in ANP have been reported to identify key indicators that play an important role in networks. We found out that the correspondence between CM and ANP is the stronger the more rigidly cause-effect relationships are interpreted, which is the case for the DPSIR system of SFM indicators.It is demonstrated that using indicator sets without consideration of the indicator interactions will cause shortcomings for evaluation and assessment procedures in SFM. Given strict and consistent definition of causal indicator relationships, a coupled use of CM and ANP is recommendable for both enhancing the process of problem structuring as well as supporting preference-based evaluation of decision alternatives.     

Community mapping of ecosystem services in tropical rainforest of Ecuador

Tropical forests provide a wide range of ecosystem services (ES), and their continuous supply depends on efficient and effective management against deforestation and forest degradation. In Ecuador, indigenous communities are highly dependent on the forest and therefore on forest ES. However, there is a lack of knowledge about their demands concerning ES. In order to better understand how local and indigenous people use the forest and to facilitate its management, this study completed a spatially explicit assessment of ES using participatory mapping in the Sumaco Biosphere Reserve (Napo province, Central-Northern Ecuador). The Biosphere Reserve is suitable as a case study because it is a protected area with high land-use and population pressure and therefore requires the development and monitoring of management plans.First, semi-structured interviews were conducted with experts (n = 15) in order to identify the most important ES used by the communities in the study area. In a second step, members (n = 208) of 24 communities were asked to indicate on a 3-D map where they utilize the different ES (food, wood, water, tourism, hunting). The highlighted localities were digitized and then analyzed with statistical and GIS techniques. The results showed that the ES locations were not randomly distributed, but were most abundant four kilometers or less from roads. Spatial pattern analysis identified hotspots of ES provision, and the evaluation according to administrative units allowed us to identify five municipalities where demand for all assessed ES was high. In conclusion, the combination of participatory mapping of ES and GIS-based analysis can facilitate the identification of priority protection areas, provide guidance for developing specific forest management strategies, and also support monitoring systems to detect forest degradation.     

Fuzzy methods for assessing criteria and indicators of sustainable forest management

This paper describes the general concepts, meaning, and definitions of sustainability and proposes the use of soft methodologies, particularly fuzzy set theory, for its assessment. Criteria and indicators (C&I) are described as instruments to assess forest sustainability. Basic elements and concepts of fuzzy sets are described, including membership functions and their interpretations in the context of sustainable forest management. Moreover, fuzzy operators that can combine the operational concepts of sustainability, namely criteria and indicators are described. A simple illustrative example is described to demonstrate the application of these methodologies.     

Using structural sustainability for forest health monitoring and triage: Case study of a mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae)-impacted landscape

Heavy disturbance-induced mortality can negatively impact forest biota, functions, and services by drastically altering the forest structures that create stable environmental conditions. Disturbance impacts on forest structure can be assessed using structural sustainability⿿the degree of balance between living and dead portions of a tree population⿿s size-class distribution⿿which is the basis of baseline mortality analysis. This analysis uses a conditionally calibrated reference level (i.e., baseline mortality) against which to detect significant mortality deviations without need for historical references. Recently, a structural sustainability index was developed by parameterizing results of this analysis to allow spatial and temporal comparisons within or among forested landscapes. The utility of this index as a tool for forest health monitoring programs and triage decisions has not been examined. Here, we investigated this utility by retrospectively analyzing the structural sustainability of a mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae)-impacted, lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta)-dominated landscape annually from 2000 to 2006 as well as among watersheds. We show that temporal patterns of structural sustainability at the landscape-level reflect accumulating beetle-induced mortality as well as beetle-lodgepole pine ecology. At the watershed-level, this sustainability spatially varied with 2006 beetle-induced mortality. Further, structural sustainability satisfies key criteria for effective indicators of ecosystem change. We conclude that structural sustainability is a viable tool upon which to base or supplement forest health monitoring and triage programs, and could potentially increase the efficacy of such programs under current and future climate change-associated disturbance patterns.     

The effects of forestry on carabid beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae) in boreal forests

As compared to natural forests, managed boreal forests are younger, more homogeneous in terms of tree age and species composition, and consist of smaller fragments. Here we examine the effects of such characteristics caused by forestry on carabid beetles (Coleoptera, Carabidae) in the boreal region. The main results are the following. (1) Fragmentation of forests and the size of a fragment appear not to be crucial for the survival of the majority of forest carabids, as they tend to be distributed over various successional stages, but species requiring old-growth habitats suffer. (2) For carabids there appear to be no or very few edge specialist species, and forest-open land edges appear to be effective barriers for species associated with forest or open habitat. However, generalist species easily cross the edge, and edges of forest fragments may be invaded by species from the surrounding open habitat. (3) Habitat change following clear-cutting dramatically changes the composition of carabid assemblages: species restricted to mature forests disappear and open-habitat species invade, while habitat generalists survive at least in the short term. Carabid diversity can probably best be maintained if forest management mimics natural processes, maintains natural structures and includes the natural composition of vegetation and other structural elements (such as dead wood) within the stands, provided that these forest features can be maintained and recreated through forest management practices. At a larger scale, the whole spectrum of forest types and ages (especially old-growth forests), and different successional processes (especially fire) should be maintained. These require the development and use of innovative logging methods, and the planning, implementation, and assessment of landscape-scale ecological management strategies.     

The role of landscape configuration in plant composition of floodplain forests across different physiographic areas

Questions: What is the relative importance of landscape variables compared to habitat quality variables in determining species composition in floodplain forests across different physiographic areas? How do species composition and species traits relate to effects of particular landscape variables? Do lowland and mountain areas differ in effects of landscape variables on species composition? Location: Southern Czech Republic. Methods: A total of 240 vegetation relevés of floodplain forests with measured site conditions were recorded across six physiographic areas. I tested how physiographic area, habitat quality variables and landscape variables such as current land‐cover categories, forest continuity, forest size and urbanization influenced plant species composition. I also compared how mountain and lowland areas differ in terms of the relative importance of these variables. To determine how landscape configuration affects the distribution of species traits, relationships of traits and species affinity with landscape variables were tested. Results: Among landscape variables, forest continuity, landscape forest cover and distance to nearest settlement altered the vegetation. These variables also influenced the distributions of species traits, i.e. life forms, life strategies, affinity to forest, dispersal modes, seed characteristics, flooding tolerance and Ellenberg indicator values for nitrogen, light, moisture and soil reaction. Nevertheless, physiographic area and habitat quality variables explained more variation in species composition. Landscape variables were more important in lowland areas. Forest continuity affected species composition only in lowlands. Conclusions: Although habitat quality and physiographic area explained more vegetation variability, landscape configuration was also a key factor influencing species composition and distribution of species traits. However, the results are dependent on forest geographical location, with lowland forests being more influenced by landscape variables compared to mountain forests.     

Functional diversity and traits assembly patterns of lichens as indicators of successional stages in a tropical rainforest

Understanding community assembly patterns with regard to functional traits, which may be common to different species, allows us to compare ecological communities in a wider range of environmental and phytogeographic conditions. Moreover, a functional approach may facilitate the comprehension of the relation between biotic changes and ecosystem functions in complex systems such as tropical forests. Considering the lack of information in relation to the influence of environmental conditions on lichen functional traits, on lichen functional patterns in tropical forests and the potential usage of this approach in bioindication studies, this paper aims at (i) determining the functional structure of the lichen communities along the forest succession gradient, (ii) assessing the relation of lichen functional traits to this gradient and (iii) verifying the potential of using lichen functional traits as indicators of successional stages in tropical rainforests. Lichens were sampled in 24 sampling units of three successional stages (6–10; 12–20; and 40–60 years of recovering). The results corroborated our main hypothesis that the functional structure of the lichen communities responds to structural changes along a forest regeneration gradient. Growth forms (foliose, fruticose and crustose) as well as some reproductive trait states (lirella, isidia and perithecia) were the most suitable lichen traits to be used as indicators of forest succession in the southern edge of the Atlantic Rainforest. Lirella, fruticose and foliose were more related to earlier successional stages; isidia was more related to intermediate stages, while perithecia and crustose were more related to older stages. These results reinforce the ability of lichens to be used as bioindicators of forest conditions.     

Identifying practical indicators of biodiversity for stand-level management of plantation forests

Identification of valid indicators of biodiversity is a critical need for sustainable forest management. We developed compositional, structural and functional indicators of biodiversity for five taxonomic groups—bryophytes, vascular plants, spiders, hoverflies and birds—using data from 44 Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) and ash (Fraxinus excelsior) plantation forests in Ireland. The best structural biodiversity indicator was stand stage, defined using a multivariate classification of forest structure variables. However, biodiversity trends over the forest cycle and between tree species differ among the taxonomic groups studied. Canopy cover was the main structural indicator and affected other structural variables such as cover of lower vegetation layers. Other structural indicators included deadwood and distances to forest edge and to broadleaved woodland. Functional indicators included stand age, site environmental characteristics and management practices. Compositional indicators were limited to more easily identifiable plant and bird species. Our results suggest that the biodiversity of any one of the species groups we surveyed cannot act as a surrogate for all of the other species groups. However, certain subgroups, such as forest bryophytes and saproxylic hoverflies, may be able to act as surrogates for each other. The indicators we have identified should be used together to identify stands of potentially high biodiversity or to evaluate the biodiversity effects of silvicultural management practices. They are readily assessed by non-specialists, ecologically meaningful and applicable over a broad area with similar climate conditions and silvicultural systems. The approach we have used to develop biodiversity indicators, including stand structural types, is widely relevant and can enhance sustainable forest management of plantations.     

Slow understory redevelopment after clearcutting in high mountain forests

Besides natural tree regeneration itself, the development of the forest understory community is highly indicative of the ecological recovery of forest stands post-harvesting, and therefore of the sustainability of forest management. High mountain forests might show particularly slow recovery of the understory plant community because of harsh environmental conditions. We compared understory community richness and composition among three age classes of forest stands in the subalpine Engelmann Spruce–Subalpine Fir zone in the interior of British Columbia, Canada. Species composition was found to differ significantly between mature stands (>110 years old and never harvested) and both recent clearcuts (5–8 years old) and the oldest clearcuts present in the study area (second growth: 24–28 years old). A non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) ordination revealed no unidirectional return of species composition in harvested stands towards that of mature forest; indeed, plots in recent clearcuts and second growth stands were similar to one another and clearly separated from the mature stands. Indicator Species Analysis revealed that moss species were particularly indicative of mature forest, with four moss species being common in mature stands but absent from both younger stages. Compared to what has been reported for lower elevation coniferous forests, e.g. in the U.S. Pacific Northwest, redevelopment of the understory appears to be slow after harvesting in these high elevation mountain forests. Rotation intervals that consider the natural temporal pattern of species turnover and the occurrence interval of major natural disturbances (here: fire) should provide effective approaches to sustainable forest management of these forests.     

森林生态系统健康评估的一般性途径探讨

生态系统健康评估方法及指标体系成为21世纪生态系统健康研究的核心内容．作为陆地生态系统的重要组成部分,森林生态系统健康的评估研究引起了广泛的关注．学者们对森林生态系统健康的定义、测度、评估和管理开始做出积极的探讨和实践,提出了一些理论和应用上的评价方法、评估途径和框架,为解决陆地生态系统危机甚至全球环境问题提供了新的概念和一系列研究手段．但由于多种条件的限制,目前仍然没有通用有效的评估森林生态系统健康的一般模式．文中简要探讨了森林生态系统健康问题,提出有效评估森林健康的3个前提：1)清晰明确的概念框架;2)充分有效的数据信息;3)正确合理的研究途径和技术手段．并分别进行了探讨．在此基础上总结阐述了可用于森林生态系统健康评估研究的途径：长期研究和定位监测、时空互换、历史研究途径、经济价值评估及其途径等．     

The use of ground beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae) and spiders (Araneae) as bioindicators of sustainable forest management: A review

International and Canadian national and provincial level policy have proposed the use of criteria and indicators to examine the sustainability of renewable resource management. Species suitable as ecological indicators are those whose biology are sensitive to disturbance and therefore demonstrate a negative effect of management on the processes or functioning of the ecosystem. Ground dwelling invertebrates such as carabid beetles and spiders have strong potential as ecological indicators as they are readily surveyed in sufficient numbers for meaningful conclusions to be drawn, have a stable taxonomy and, at least in the case of ground beetles, are readily identified. They are good local scale indicators of ecosystem disturbance in forested landscapes at both the short and long time scales, responding to both clearcut logging and fire differently. Ground beetles and spiders in boreal Canada may not be good indicators of disturbance at landscape scales, as little response to the creation of forest edges and habitat fragmentation has so far been observed. We propose that these bioindicators be used as part of local-level validation monitoring to test hypotheses about disturbance impacts. In this way, bioindicators are used in a research setting to evaluate silvicultural practices, providing a rating of their sustainability for a given broad forest type grouping.     

Regeneration of tropical dry forests in Central America,with examples from Nicaragua

Abstract. This paper focuses on the management potential of natural forests in the tropical dry zones of Central America, particularly Nicaragua. Distribution and status of dry forest formations are reviewed. Two case studies from the Pacific coast of Nicaragua are presented to illustrate the disturbance created by traditional utilization, and to show the relatively high potential for natural forest management, with many of the tree species having economic value. Natural forest management, together with conservation and reforestation, is viewed as the main management option for the tropical dry forest areas. In spite of its importance, this option has received little attention or promotion from the governmental forestry sector. Four complementary options which can be devised for silvicultural work in production forests are: encouragement of advanced growth of desirable tree species, inducement of natural regeneration, coppice management, and compensatory planting. These options form different strategies for rehabilitation of the production and conservation functions of the forest and may well be combined in the same area. Research applied to better utilization of the forest resources should form an intrinsic part of rural development programs. Research work in tropical dry forest areas should focus on ecological, as well as socio-cultural and economical aspects related to the management options. Experimental sites are important enabling and securing long-term basic and applied biological research. They may also serve as units for demonstration, training and extension.     

Exploring local consequences of two land-use alternatives for the supply of urban ecosystem services in Stockholm year 2050

Ecosystem services (ESs) are gaining ground in urban policy as a key to attaining sustainable cities. However, strategic and land-use planners need operational and accessible tools to better understand the consequences of policy and planning measures. Based on a study of the City of Stockholm and its surrounding region, we argue that spatially explicit land-use mapping is a good base for modeling and visualizing the supply of urban ESs provided by different patterns of Service Providing Units. By adding more detailed characteristics of land use through the concept of Service Providing Elements (SPEs), and by assessing synergies and trade-offs between these attributes, implications for the supply of ESs at different scale levels could be identified and discussed. Detailed land-use mapping and ES modeling were applied to two future land-use alternatives. The supply of eight urban ESs was found to vary significantly between the two alternatives depending on the ratios of different SPEs, even within identical land-use classes. One of the land-use alternatives had significantly higher potential for food and energy provision, much higher air cooling and air quality regulation capacity especially in densely built areas, showed less surface sealing, and provided better conditions for mental recreation. The exception was supply of physical recreation opportunities, where the other land-use option had an advantage. These differences became more accentuated when we zoomed in on two local urban areas. Based on these findings, our main conclusion is that, in order to provide planning and policy-making with an adequate knowledge base, it is necessary to move beyond land-use classes, as defined by European data sets like Urban Atlas, and toward tools capable of capturing more detailed aspects of land use and its relations to the supply of urban ESs. This should be made a priority, especially in early stages of planning and policy formation, and also used to support development of urban by-laws, procurement arrangements, neighborhood and building certification, etc. The approaches used in the study can serve as a valid starting point for further development of such tools and methods compatible with planners’ ordinary working modes. However, to make such progress possible, the ecosystem service research community needs to step up to the challenge of delivering locally specific and useful data on how urban land-use links to ES supply, including synergies and trade-offs between different ESs.