Sexual dimorphism of marbled polecat Vormela peregusna (Carnivora: Mustelidae)

Analysis of morphometric variation in 26 cranial characters were studied in 85 individuals of marbled polecat Vormela peregusna from Turkmenistan demonstrated a low level of sexual dimorphism in the species. The properties of sexual dimorphism in marbled polecat are discussed in terms of available hypotheses of sexual dimorphism in carnivores.     

Molecular phylogenetic status of the Bulgarian marbled polecat (Vormela peregusna,Mustelidae, Carnivora), revealed by Y chromosomal genes and mitochondrial DNA sequences

In this study, we investigated molecular phylogenetic status of the marbled polecat (Vormela peregusna) from Bulgaria, using sequences of two Y-chromosomal genes (SRY and ZFY). The phylogenetic tree inferred using combined sequences of both genes indicated that the marbled polecat was split from genera Lutra, Neovison and Mustela after genus Martes was diverged in family Mustelidae. In addition, we analyzed molecular phylogeography of the Bulgarian population of the marbled polecat, using cytochrome b and control region sequences of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). The phylogenetic tree of cytochrome b indicated that the haplotypes of the Bulgarian population comprised two haplogroups, which were the most ancestral clades. Additionally, the control region phylogeny showed that the haplotypes of Bulgaria formed two haplogroups: one was the most ancestral clade, and the other was the derivative clade. One individual with the most ancestral cytochrome b clade had a control region haplotype of the derivative clade. Thus, this study revealed that the most ancestral lineages of the marbled polecat are included in the population of Bulgaria. The Bulgarian population could be a remnant lineage from a basal for the species, which in Pleistocene occupied a relatively large area related to the Balkan-Caucasian.     

A chemical perspective on the evolution of variation in Eucalyptus globulus

It is becoming increasingly easy to generate genotypic data but much harder to gather an equivalent amount of phenotypic information, particularly for chemical traits. In this study of Eucalyptus globulus ssp. globulus, we measured about 60 chemical leaf traits of trees growing in a common garden to address the following questions: (1) how much variation is there between geographic regions, populations within regions and within populations? (2) How do chemical traits vary over the species’ geographic range? (3) If so, does E. globulus ssp. globulus exhibit distinct chemotypes – plants that are morphologically similar but which differ chemically? (4) Are the affinities between E. globulus ssp. globulus and closely related subspecies apparent in the chemical variation? Variation among trees within populations contributed most variation in leaf chemistry followed by variation between geographic regions. For many traits, variation among populations within proposed races and variation among proposed races within geographic regions explained little of the total variation. There was a cline in the concentration of secondary chemicals with the lowest concentrations in Tasmanian populations and the highest in those from eastern Victoria, with intermediate concentrations in populations from Bass Strait Islands. We identified three chemotypes, characterised by specific terpenes and formylated phloroglucinol compounds. The frequency of occurrence of these chemotypes showed a geographic pattern also, with “chemotype 1” predominating in Tasmania, while “chemotypes 2 and 3” occurred at highest frequency in eastern Victoria. We suggest that the chemotypes reflect introgression between E. globulus ssp. globulus and the three closely related subspecies – E. globulus ssp. bicostata, E. globulus ssp. maidenii and E. globulus ssp. pseudoglobulus. Although the formation of land-bridges with fluctuating sea levels has no doubt shaped the evolutionary history of all four subspecies, we propose that the migratory swift parrot (Lathamus discolor), an important pollinator and a species closely associated with E. globulus, has helped shape the evolution of the four tree subspecies.     

Evolutionary and dispersal history of Eurasian house mice Mus musculus clarified by more extensive geographic sampling of mitochondrial DNA

We examined the sequence variation of mitochondrial DNA control region and cytochrome b gene of the house mouse (Mus musculus sensu lato) drawn from ca. 200 localities, with 286 new samples drawn primarily from previously unsampled portions of their Eurasian distribution and with the objective of further clarifying evolutionary episodes of this species before and after the onset of human-mediated long-distance dispersals. Phylogenetic analysis of the expanded data detected five equally distinct clades, with geographic ranges of northern Eurasia (musculus, MUS), India and Southeast Asia (castaneus, CAS), Nepal (unspecified, NEP), western Europe (domesticus, DOM) and Yemen (gentilulus). Our results confirm previous suggestions of Southwestern Asia as the likely place of origin of M. musculus and the region of Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and northern India, specifically as the ancestral homeland of CAS. The divergence of the subspecies lineages and of internal sublineage differentiation within CAS were estimated to be 0.37–0.47 and 0.14–0.23 million years ago (mya), respectively, assuming a split of M. musculus and Mus spretus at 1.7 mya. Of the four CAS sublineages detected, only one extends to eastern parts of India, Southeast Asia, Indonesia, Philippines, South China, Northeast China, Primorye, Sakhalin and Japan, implying a dramatic range expansion of CAS out of its homeland during an evolutionary short time, perhaps associated with the spread of agricultural practices. Multiple and non-coincident eastward dispersal events of MUS sublineages to distant geographic areas, such as northern China, Russia and Korea, are inferred, with the possibility of several different routes.     

Major biogeographic barriers in eastern Australia have shaped the population structure of widely distributed Eucalyptus moluccana and its putative subspecies

We have investigated the impact of recognized biogeographic barriers on genetic differentiation of grey box (Eucalyptus moluccana), a common and widespread tree species of the family Myrtaceae in eastern Australian woodlands, and its previously proposed four subspecies moluccana, pedicellata, queenslandica, and crassifolia. A range of phylogeographic analyses were conducted to examine the population genetic differentiation and subspecies genetic structure in E. moluccana in relation to biogeographic barriers. Slow evolving markers uncovering long term processes (chloroplast DNA) were used to generate a haplotype network and infer phylogeographic barriers. Additionally, fast evolving, hypervariable markers (microsatellites) were used to estimate demographic processes and genetic structure among five geographic regions (29 populations) across the entire distribution of E. moluccana. Morphological features of seedlings, such as leaf and stem traits, were assessed to evaluate population clusters and test differentiation of the putative subspecies. Haplotype network analysis revealed twenty chloroplast haplotypes with a main haplotype in a central position shared by individuals belonging to the regions containing the four putative subspecies. Microsatellite analysis detected the genetic structure between Queensland (QLD) and New South Wales (NSW) populations, consistent with the McPherson Range barrier, an east‐west spur of the Great Dividing Range. The substructure was detected within QLD and NSW in line with other barriers in eastern Australia. The morphological analyses supported differentiation between QLD and NSW populations, with no difference within QLD, yet some differentiation within NSW populations. Our molecular and morphological analyses provide evidence that several geographic barriers in eastern Australia, including the Burdekin Gap and the McPherson Range have contributed to the genetic structure of E. moluccana. Genetic differentiation among E. moluccana populations supports the recognition of some but not all the four previously proposed subspecies, with crassifolia being the most differentiated.     

The Evolutionary History and Genetic Diversity of Kinkajous, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Potos flavus</Emphasis> (Carnivora,Procyonidae)

The genus Potos (Procyonidae) is currently recognized as a monotypic genus comprising the single species Potos flavus, the kinkajou. Kinkajous are widely distributed throughout forested habitats of tropical Central and South America, extending from eastern Brazil across central Bolivia, eastern Peru, northern Ecuador, Guianas, Suriname, Venezuela, Colombia, and then through Central America and into western Mexico. The taxonomic history of the species is complex, with seven or eight subspecies historically recognized to acknowledge the phenotypic variation among populations. In this study, the systematics and the evolutionary history of Potos flavus were investigated based on the mitochondrial gene cytochrome b, including specimens from a large range of localities, covering most of the distribution of the species, from central Middle America (Costa Rica and Panama) through South America (Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil, Guyana, and French Guiana). Analyses of 30 Potos flavus sequences showed 27 haplotypes that were grouped in five main clades in all phylogenetic analyses. These clades suggested a high geographic structure with specimens from (1) Costa Rica, (2) Guianas and North Brazil, (3) North Peru, (4) Ecuador and Panama, (5a) interfluves Branco-Negro rivers in the Brazilian Amazon, (5b) Eastern Atlantic Forest, (5c) Amazonian lowlands east Negro river including Bolivia, Peru, and West Brazil. Each of these clades differs from 4.5 % to 9.3 % in their genetic distance estimates, which suggests that the specific status of some of these lineages should be reconsidered. Divergence dating and biogeographic analysis suggested that crown Potos diversified in the Miocene-Pliocene in South America, and geographic barriers, such as savannas and rivers, may have played a significant role in the kinkajou diversification.     

Phylogeographic analysis of nuclear and mtDNA supports subspecies designations in the ostrich (Struthio camelus)

We investigated the phylogeography and subspecies classification of the ostrich (Struthio camelus) by assessing patterns of variation in mitochondrial DNA control region (mtDNA-CR) sequence and across fourteen nuclear microsatellite loci. The current consensus taxonomy of S. camelus names five subspecies based on morphology, geographic range, mtDNA restriction fragment length polymorphism and mtDNA-CR sequence analysis: S. c. camelus, S. c. syriacus, S. c. molybdephanes, S. c. massaicus and S. c. australis. We expanded a previous mtDNA dataset from 18 individual mtDNA-CR sequences to 123 sequences, including sequences from all five subspecies. Importantly, these additional sequences included 43 novel sequences of the red-necked ostrich, S. c. camelus, obtained from birds from Niger. Phylogeographic reconstruction of these sequences matches previous results, with three well-supported clades containing S. c. camelus/syriacus, S. c. molybdophanes, and S. c. massaicus/australis, respectively. The 14 microsatellite loci assessed for 119 individuals of four subspecies (all but S. c. syriacus) showed considerable variation, with an average of 13.4 (±2.0) alleles per locus and a mean observed heterozygosity of 55.7 (±5.3)%. These data revealed high levels of variation within most subspecies, and a structure analysis revealed strong separation between each of the four subspecies. The level of divergence across both marker types suggests the consideration of separate species status for S. c. molybdophanes, and perhaps also for S. c. camelus/syriacus. Both the mtDNA-CR and microsatellite analyzes also suggest that there has been no recent hybridization between the subspecies. These findings are of importance for management of the highly endangered red-necked subspecies (S. c. camelus) and may warrant its placement onto the IUCN red list of threatened animals.     

Infraspecific classification reflects genetic differentiation in the widespread Petunia axillaris complex: A comparison among morphological,ecological, and genetic patterns of geographic variation

Plants are subjected to natural selection during expansion of their geographic range or when facing changes in environmental conditions, which in turn may affect phenotypic diversity. Studies on geographic phenotypic variation provide insight into the evolutionary processes and have long contributed to better understanding of diversification within and among species. Petunia axillaris is widely distributed in temperate South America, occurring throughout the Pampas region. The current taxonomy of this species recognizes three allopatric subspecies, which occupy nearly adjacent territories, according to floral morphology: P. axillaris subsp. axillaris, P. axillaris subsp. parodii, and P. axillaris subsp. subandina. In this study, we sampled the three P. axillaris subspecies and used both molecular markers (from the plastid and nuclear genomes) and morphological measurements to investigate how genetic diversity and morphological variation correlate to ecological variables and the geographic context. We used different forms of Mantel tests (partial and correlograms) to investigate the geographic distribution patterns in distinct types of similarity/dissimilarity among the populations and their relationships. We also modeled the morphological variation in P. axillaris as a function of the genetic marker frequencies in the populations. We found that the morphological differences leading to the recognition of different subspecies of P. axillaris reflect historical processes of isolation and that adaptation to different ecological conditions faced by each lineage is perhaps not merely a consequence of phenotypic plasticity. These findings suggest that differences between subspecies could represent an incipient speciation stage.     

Mitochondrial DNA Indicates Late Pleistocene Divergence of Populations of Heteronympha merope,an Emerging Model in Environmental Change Biology

Knowledge of historical changes in species range distribution provides context for investigating adaptive potential and dispersal ability. This is valuable for predicting the potential impact of environmental change on species of interest. Butterflies are one of the most important taxa for studying such impacts, and Heteronympha merope has the potential to provide a particularly valuable model, in part due to the existence of historical data on morphological traits and glycolytic enzyme variation. This study investigates the population genetic structure and phylogeography of H. merope, comparing the relative resolution achieved through partial DNA sequences of two mitochondrial loci, COI and ND5. These data are used to define the relationship between subspecies, showing that the subspecies are reciprocally monophyletic. On this basis, the Western Australian subspecies H. m. duboulayi is genetically distinct from the two eastern subspecies. Throughout the eastern part of the range, levels of migration and the timing of key population splits of potential relevance to climatic adaptation are estimated and indicate Late Pleistocene divergence both of the Tasmanian subspecies and of an isolated northern population from the eastern mainland subspecies H. m. merope. This information is then used to revisit historical data and provides support for the importance of clinal variation in wing characters, as well as evidence for selective pressure acting on allozyme loci phosphoglucose isomerase and phosphoglucomutase in H. merope. The study has thus confirmed the value of H. merope as a model organism for measuring responses to environmental change, offering the opportunity to focus on isolated populations, as well as a latitudinal gradient, and to use historical changes to test the accuracy of predictions for the future.     

Population systematics of Russell's viper: a multivariate study

A multivariate analysis of the population systematics of Russell's viper, based on scalation and colour pattern characters, reveals that the populations of this viper constitute two well-defined taxa: a western form, comprising all populations from the Indian subcontinent, and an eastern form, comprising all populations from east of the Bay of Bengal. The two forms could be considered either as subspecies of one species, or as two separate species, depending on the species concept used. Within the western form, there is no clear pattern of geographic variation. Within the eastern form, the populations from the Lesser Sunda Islands are clearly divergent from the populations of mainland Asia and Java. The conventionally recognized subspecies of Vipera russelli fail to portray this pattern of geographic variation. There is no clear relationship between the pattern of geographic variation in morphology and the pattern of geographic variation in the clinical effects of the venom in human bite victims: some populations with considerable differences in venom effects are equally distinct morphologically, whereas other populations with equally strong venom differences are morphologically very similar. The distribution of Russell's viper can be attributed to Pleistocene changes in climate and sea level, coupled with the viper's ecological requirements, which appear to include a seasonally dry climate.     

拟平鳅头背部斑纹和下唇结构变异及其分类学意义

针对拟平鳅(Liniparhomaloptera disparis)的两个亚种(L.disparis disparis和L.disparis qiongzhongensis)现有形态分类特征的含糊,通过观察标本室保存的15条水系441尾标本,首次提出利用下唇结构类型作为拟平鳅亚种的补充形态鉴别依据,结合头背部斑纹特征,能有效地鉴别拟平鳅各地理种群和亚种,为拟平鳅的分类和鉴定提供参考依据。依据头背部斑纹差异归纳出4种类型,分别为小斑块型(云开山脉以东的7条水系及海南岛万泉河),虫蚀纹型(云开山脉以西的5条水系),混合斑纹型(海南岛的万泉河、南渡江、昌化江共3条水系),大斑块型(海南岛的昌化江)。依据下唇结构变化情况总结出3种下唇类型,分别是半圆型(云开山脉以西的5条水系),几字型(云开山脉以东的7条水系),马蹄型(海南岛的3条水系)。依据头背部斑纹特征结合下唇结构特征,对照模式标本的描述,重新定义了拟平鳅原有的两个亚种,将分布于云开山脉以东水系的种群鉴定为指名亚种,拟平鳅L.disparis disparis,其鉴别特征为:头背部斑纹为小斑块型并且下唇类型为几字型;将海南岛种群鉴定为琼中拟平鳅L.disparis qiongzhongensis,它们都具有独特的马蹄型下唇类结构,且头背部斑纹以混合斑纹型为主。重要的发现是,分布于云开山脉以西的种群与已命名的2个亚种在形态上有明显的差异,其头背部斑纹为独特的虫蚀纹型且下唇类型为半圆型。这可能是一个新亚种。分子生物学方法也许能证明云开山脉以西的种群在遗传上的独特性以及形成新亚种的可能性。云开山脉东、西两侧以及海南岛不同水系的拟平鳅的种群分化问题值得进一步探究。     

Morphometric and meristic diversity of the species Scolopendra cingulata Latreille, 1829 (Chilopoda: Scolopendridae) in the Mediterranean region

Scolopendra cingulata Latreille, 1829 is the commonest scolopendromorph species in the Mediterranean area. However, its morphological and geographic variation has not been examined so far, and therefore robust hypotheses about the factors that have shaped that variability are lacking. We examined, using multivariate methods for 19 morphometric and meristic characters, the morphological variation of that species using a comprehensive sample of 503 adult specimens from 130 restricted geographic localities. The localities were distributed in three major geographic areas (Balkans, Asia Minor-Middle East, and Italy) in order to discern biological entities and to estimate the morphological relationships between populations and geographic regions. Results showed significant differences between the three geographic groups. Characters such as the distance between the paramedian sulci of the 7th and 8th tergite, the number of antennal segments, the number of spines on the dorsal side of 21st prefemur and number of spines on the 21st prefemoral process significantly discriminated populations of S. cingulata along a west-east geographic gradient. Both eastern (Balkan) and easternmost populations (Asia Minor-Middle East) showed higher mean values of antennal articles and spines of 21st prefemur than the Italian populations. No significant morphological variation was discovered between the sexes of S. cingulata apart from cephalic width and distance between the two paramedian sulci of the 7th and 8th tergite. Based on certain morphometric differences among the three major geographic regions, we suggest that S. cingulata originated in the east and colonized south European area from two different geographic routes. It is suggested that west-east morphological trend of S. cingulata is related either to the prominent palaeogeographic events of the area or to the competition with S. oraniensis Lucas, 1846 in the western Mediterranean.     

Phenotypic variation of the scarce heath <Emphasis Type="Italic">Coenonympha hero</Emphasis> (L.) (Lepidoptera,Satyridae) from the central part of its range

Variation of the fore and hind wing lengths and the diameters of wing eyespots in two subspecies of Coenonympha hero (L.) from the central part of the species range was analyzed. Clinal variation was revealed, manifested in a gradual increase of the wing size and eyespot diameters from west to east in the Urals. Both in C. h. hero in the Urals and in C. h. perseis in Siberia, the northern peripheral populations had a specific wing pattern with eyespots smaller than in more southern parts of the corresponding ranges. In most cases, such climatic factors as the mean annual air temperature, precipitation, duration of the frost-free period, and humidity were shown to affect significantly the variation of morphological traits of C. hero. Chrono-geographical analysis of variation showed that in some cases the differences between the samples collected in the same locality in different years were comparable to or greater than geographic variation within the subspecies range. Thus, the population as a whole is influenced by climatic factors and weather conditions in a particular part of the range during a particular season; C. hero may therefore be a suitable object for monitoring the impact of environmental changes on insects.     

Differentiation and phylogeny of the olivaceous warbler Hippolais pallida species complex

The pattern of phenotypic and molecular variation within the polytypic olivaceous warbler H. pallida was examined. This species is distributed in the southern parts of the western Palaearctic, central Asia and in the arid parts of northern Africa, and also in parts of the sub-Saharan Sahel zone. Based on morphology, five subspecies, at times assigned to three groups, have been identified. By comparing morphological, behavioural, vocal and molecular variation, we investigated the phenotypic and phylogenetic relationships within the Hippolais pallida group. The morphological and genetic data of the present study support the view of splitting the olivaceous warbler into a western (former subspecies opaca) and an eastern form (former subspecies elaeica, pallida, reiseri and laeneni). Opaca is consistently and significantly larger than the other taxa in all size measurements, even if it does share morphological properties with elaeica in characters associated with migration. The song of the polytypic pallida differs clearly from that of opaca, and is remarkably consistent within its wide range which comprises four subspecies. The molecular analysis, and the resulting phylogenetic pattern, clearly separated opaca on a single branch distant from the other subspecies. The eastern form consists of two non-overlapping haplotype groups: elaeica with relatively diverse mtDNA variation, and the three African subspecies pallida, reiseri and laeneni, which all share the same or closely related mtDNA haplotypes. It remains open whether the African taxa should be regarded as three valid subspecies of the Eastern olivaceous warbler, or if they are better treated as a single African subspecies.     

Cranial variation in bottlenose dolphins<Emphasis Type="Italic">Tursiops spp.</Emphasis> from the Indian andwestern Pacific Oceans: additional evidence for two species

We examined the skulls of 72 bottlenose dolphins from the Indian and western Pacific Oceans to clarify the systematics in genusTursiops. We also examined type skulls ofTursiops aduncus (Ehrenberg, 1832),T. eurynome (Gray, 1846),T. catalania (Gray, 1862),Delphinus (Steno) gadamu Owen 1866,T. dawsoni Lydekker 1908, andT. truncatus (Montagu, 1821). The specimens were divided into two groups, A and B, based on rostrum length and characters of the basal part of the rostrum. The rostrum of group A was longer and tapered abruptly near the base, whereas that of group B was shorter and tapered more gradually throughout its length. Group A contained specimens from western, central, and eastern Asia, Africa, and Australasia. Group B contained specimens from central and eastern Asia and Australasia. The six type skulls were also clearly divided into two groups; the type skulls ofT. aduncus, T. catalania, andDelphinus (Steno) gadamu were included in group A, whereas the type skulls ofT. truncatus, T. eurynome, andT. dawsoni were included in group B. This grouping was consistent with the genetic status. Therefore, we identified group A specimens asT. aduncus and group B specimensT. truncatus, the oldest scientific names related to the two groups.     

Geographic expansion of the cabbage butterfly (Pieris rapae) and the evolution of highly UV‐reflecting females

Abstract Reflection of ultraviolet (UV) light by the wings of the female Eurasian cabbage butterfly, Pieris rapae, shows a large geographic variation. The wings of the female of the European subspecies, P. rapae rapae, reflect little UV light, while butterflies of the Asian subspecies, P. rapae crucivora, may reflect it strongly or at only intermediate levels. The geographic region where P. rapae originated remains to be determined. Moreover, it is not clear if females with wings that reflect little UV light are ancestral to females with wings that reflect UV strongly or vice versa. In the present study, we aimed to determine the geographic origin and ancestral UV pattern of cabbage butterflies through mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequence analysis and amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) analysis. The results of these investigations suggest that P. rapae is of European origin and that it has expanded its distribution eastward to Asia. It follows that the ancestral subspecies is the type with UV‐absorbing wings. Lower nucleotide diversities and haplotype network patterns of mtDNA derived from East Asian populations suggest that population expansion from Europe to East Asia probably occurred fairly recently and at a rapid rate.     

狭义蛇葡萄属东亚支系的系统发生与生物地理演化

狭义蛇葡萄属(Ampelopsis s. str.)是葡萄科的落叶木质藤本植物,主要分布在北半球温带地区,特别是东亚为其重要的分布和演化中心。该研究选取了狭义蛇葡萄属15个种的37个样本,对其5个叶绿体基因片段(trnL-F、rps16、psbA-trnH、atpB-rbcL和trnK-petN)和2个核基因标记(ITS和GAI1)进行了分子测序;利用测序获得的分子数据探讨属内的系统发生关系,叶的性状演化以及生物地理起源演化。结果表明：(1)狭义蛇葡萄属是一个单系类群,属内东亚地区的物种聚成一支。(2)叶绿体基因数据分析结果表明,狭义蛇葡萄属东亚支系分为两支系,这两支系的分布范围大致与东亚植物区系的中国-日本森林和中国-喜马拉雅森林亚区范围相一致。(3)形态演化分析表明,掌状复叶为祖征,叶形态性状存在多次的独立起源和演化,其变化与系统进化没有明显的关系。(4)生物地理分析结果表明,狭义蛇葡萄属起源于北美,渐新世晚期至中新世早期迁移扩散至欧洲,中新世中期随着全球气温回暖迁移至东亚,并进一步在东亚地区快速分化形成多样化中心,这可能与中新世时期的气候温暖、受第四纪冰川影响较少以及东亚地区复杂...