Problem-Elephant Translocation: Translocating the Problem and the Elephant?

Human-elephant conflict (HEC) threatens the survival of endangered Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Translocating “problem-elephants” is an important HEC mitigation and elephant conservation strategy across elephant range, with hundreds translocated annually. In the first comprehensive assessment of elephant translocation, we monitored 16 translocations in Sri Lanka with GPS collars. All translocated elephants were released into national parks. Two were killed within the parks where they were released, while all the others left those parks. Translocated elephants showed variable responses: “homers” returned to the capture site, “wanderers” ranged widely, and “settlers” established home ranges in new areas soon after release. Translocation caused wider propagation and intensification of HEC, and increased elephant mortality. We conclude that translocation defeats both HEC mitigation and elephant conservation goals.     

Patterns and determinants of elephant attacks on humans in Nepal

Attacks on humans by Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) is an extreme form of human–elephant conflict. It is a serious issue in southern lowland Nepal where elephant‐related human fatalities are higher than other wildlife. Detailed understanding of elephant attacks on humans in Nepal is still lacking, hindering to devising appropriate strategies for human–elephant conflict mitigation. This study documented spatiotemporal pattern of elephant attacks on humans, factors associated with the attacks, and human/elephant behavior contributing to deaths of victims when attacked. We compiled all the documented incidences of elephant attacks on humans in Nepal for last 20 years across Terai and Chure region of Nepal. We also visited and interviewed 412 victim families (274 fatalities and 138 injuries) on elephant attacks. Majority of the victims were males (87.86%) and had low level of education. One fourth of the elephant attacks occurred while chasing the elephants. Solitary bulls or group of subadult males were involved in most of the attack. We found higher number of attacks outside the protected area. People who were drunk and chasing elephants using firecrackers were more vulnerable to the fatalities. In contrast, chasing elephants using fire was negatively associated with the fatalities. Elephant attacks were concentrated in proximity of forests primarily affecting the socioeconomically marginalized communities. Integrated settlement, safe housing for marginalized community, and community grain house in the settlement should be promoted to reduce the confrontation between elephants and humans in entire landscape for their long‐term survival.     

Perceived human–elephant conflict and its impact for elephant conservation in northern Congo

Human–elephant conflict is a common conservation problem throughout Africa, but poorly studied where forest elephants (Loxodonta cyclotis) occur. Here, we investigated people's perceptions towards the impact of elephants around Nouabalé‐Ndoki National Park, northern Congo. We aimed to understand the perceptual differences amongst residents of four villages that varied substantially in the degree of conservation benefits received. We used a multivariate analysis to investigate how socio‐economic variables, such as employment, wealth, education and ethnicity, influenced perceptions. Using both quantitative and qualitative data, we found that the majority of respondents experienced elephant impacts, mainly through crop raiding. Residents of the village where the local conservation project is based had significantly more positive perceptions of elephants, whereas perceptions of farmers were mostly negative. We identified some misunderstandings regarding the responsibilities of elephant impact mitigation regarding benefit sharing, stakeholder involvement and lawbreaking, but also willingness to apply mitigation measures. To mitigate the prevalent impact of elephants, a comprehensive approach of measuring impact, exploring community‐based mitigating strategies and understanding of the root causes of the conflict is crucial. We propose a long‐term programme within logging concessions organizing groups of farmers to cooperate on mitigation techniques and explore alternative incomes.     

Human–elephant coexistence challenges in Myanmar: An analysis of fatal elephant attacks on humans and elephant mortality

Understanding the underlying causes behind human–elephant conflict (HEC)-driven mortality of humans and elephants will help improve both parties’ wellbeing. The objective of this study was to examine the temporal and spatial mortality patterns of humans and elephants and the influence of local attitudes, conflict factors and habitat factors on elephant poaching. We used the Myanmar Forest Department data from 2001 to 2020 for humans and 2011 to 2020 for elephants together with explanatory data on human attitudes, habitat, and conflict factors. Approximately seven persons were killed annually in elephant attacks, with a bias towards men. The annual mortality of elephants during the study period was on average 16 individuals, and most elephants were killed by humans. There was a significant relationship between the number of killed humans and human-killed elephants around HEC villages. Villages with more property damage exhibited a higher rate of human mortality, which also correlated with negative feelings of local people towards elephants. Elephant poaching was higher in villages with less suitable habitat available for elephant use. Human encroachment is an important cause of HEC, leading to human loss and forming the main threat to the survival of wild elephants. We suggest local involvement to ensure good governance in conflict resolution and mitigation strategies and to strengthen law enforcement.     

Public attitudes and willingness to pay toward the conservation of Crested Ibis: Insights for management

In order to better design conservation programs to conserve threatened species, social, economic and political factors must be carefully considered. The wild population of the endangered Crested Ibis (Nipponia nippon) is currently only distributed in Yangxian County, Shaanxi province of China, and as the gradual dispersal of its population from the mountains to the plains, the possibility of human-wildlife interaction has increased, which poses certain challenges for conservation and management. Here, we used a questionnaire to investigate public attitudes and willingness to pay (WTP) toward Crested Ibis conservation, and to evaluate relevant influencing factors, with a view to providing recommendations for its management. The results showed that local residents strongly support the conservation of ibis and factors like education level, income, residential area, perception for ibis and prior experiences significantly affected their support for conservation. Results also indicated that the annual WTP was US$18.28 per household, and the potential value of donations is about US$2.45 million per year for Crested Ibis conservation. Regression analysis indicated that income, perception for ibis, prior experience, support for conservation and environmental attitudes had a significant effect on WTP. The comparison between the original research value of the ibis and the predicted value from the Meta-regression analysis function indicated that the benefit transfer values are able to inform policy decisions. Our results can be applied not only to the design of tailored outreach programs and management policies for the Crested Ibis, but also to facilitate conservation and management of other endangered species by encouraging decision makers to use benefit transfer models for the rapid valuation in the absence of species economic information.     

基于陈述性偏好法的三江平原湿地生态保护价值比较

陈述性偏好法是当前用于评估环境物品非市场价值的主要方法,包括条件价值评估法(CVM)和选择实验(CE).本文利用陈述性偏好法对三江平原湿地的生态保护价值进行评估,基于随机效用理论构建陈述性偏好方法的支付意愿评价模型,求出基于CVM与CE的三江平原湿地生态保护价值的支付意愿(WTP).结果表明: 基于CE的平均支付意愿为每年379元,不同选择属性的边际支付意愿分别是水源涵养为每年114.00元,湿地面积为每年72.55元,自然景观为每年59.55元,生物多样性为每年37.09元;CVM的平均支付意愿为每年134元.分析支付意愿的影响因素,并对受访者拒绝支付原因进行探讨.CE方法得到受访者的支付意愿显著高于CVM方法,社会经济属性中受教育程度和个人平均年收入与受访者的支付意愿呈显著正相关,而拒绝支付原因没有显著差异.CE可以进行多属性、多水平分析,求出湿地各选择属性的支付意愿,因此CE比CVM更能揭示受访者的偏好信息,其评估结果更接近于实际.     

Willingness to Pay for Dog Rabies Vaccine and Registration in Ilocos Norte,Philippines (2012)

BackgroundThe Philippines is one of the developing countries highly affected by rabies. Dog vaccination campaigns implemented through collaborative effort between the government and NGOs have played an important role in successfully reducing the burden of disease within the country. Nevertheless, rabies vaccination of the domestic animal population requires continuous commitment not only from governments and NGOs, but also from local communities that are directly affected by such efforts. To create such long-term sustained programs, the introduction of affordable dog vaccination and registration fees is essential and has been shown to be an important strategy in Bohol, Philippines. The aim of this study, therefore, was to estimate the average amount of money that individuals were willing to pay for dog vaccination and registration in Ilocos Norte, Philippines. This study also investigated some of the determinants of individuals’ willingness to pay (WTP).MethodsA cross-sectional questionnaire was administered to 300 households in 17 municipalities (out of a total of 21) selected through a multi-stage cluster survey technique. At the time of the survey, Ilocos Norte had a population of approximately 568,017 and was predominantly rural. The Contingent Valuation Method was used to elicit WTP for dog rabies vaccination and registration. A ‘bidding game’ elicitation strategy that aims to find the maximum amount of money individuals were willing to pay was also employed. Data were collected using paper-based questionnaires. Linear regression was used to examine factors influencing participants’ WTP for dog rabies vaccination and registration.

Key Results

On average, Ilocos Norte residents were willing to pay 69.65 Philippine Pesos (PHP) (equivalent to 1.67 USD in 2012) for dog vaccination and 29.13PHP (0.70 USD) for dog registration. Eighty-six per cent of respondents were willing to pay the stated amount to vaccinate each of their dogs, annually. This study also found that WTP was influenced by demographic and knowledge factors. Among these, we found that age, income, participants’ willingness to commit to pay each year, municipality of residency, knowledge of the signs of rabies in dogs, and number of dogs owed significantly predicted WTP.     

Using choice experiments to understand public demand for the conservation of nature: A case study in a protected area of Chile

We conducted a choice experiment for the economic valuation of benefits of components of biodiversity that are provided by the natural systems protected in the Peñuelas Lake National Reserve, located in the Mediterranean zone of Chile. The Mediterranean zone of central Chile is one of the world's 34 biodiversity hotpots. Furthermore, we estimated the economic benefits of the water supply provided by the reserve. Unlike most of the previous studies on willingness to pay (WTP) for conservation, part of the data that we produce refers to: (a) public WTP for unpopular species of fauna (an endemic amphibian currently in danger of extinction); and (b) public WTP for flora present at the Reserve (endemic orchid species). Specifically the attributes of the study were the following: existence of endemic orchid species; chances of observing animals with scenic attraction; additional protection for an endemic amphibian; and, availability of drinkable water in the future. A rate of entry to the area was incorporated to estimate WTP for additional protection for the selected attributes. WTP data were obtained from a representative sample of Chilean tourists that visit the area. Factors influencing the visitors’ WTP were also explored.Three hundred and four Chilean visitors of the reserve were randomly selected for interviews. Multinomial Logit and Random Parameter Logit models results show that visitors are willing to pay to protect the selected attributes. Marginal mean WTP/visitor for the single levels of variation of the attributes range from about $1.7 per visitor per visit for securing the existence of five species of endemic orchids to about $8.9 for guaranteeing the availability of drinkable water for 50 years. The analysis of visitors’ WTP for different levels of protection allowed an improved understanding of the sensitivity of the participants to the scope of the information provided.     

Elephant Genomes Reveal Accelerated Evolution in Mechanisms Underlying Disease Defenses

Disease susceptibility and resistance are important factors for the conservation of endangered species, including elephants. We analyzed pathology data from 26 zoos and report that Asian elephants have increased neoplasia and malignancy prevalence compared with African bush elephants. This is consistent with observed higher susceptibility to tuberculosis and elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV) in Asian elephants. To investigate genetic mechanisms underlying disease resistance, including differential responses between species, among other elephant traits, we sequenced multiple elephant genomes. We report a draft assembly for an Asian elephant, and defined 862 and 1,017 conserved potential regulatory elements in Asian and African bush elephants, respectively. In the genomes of both elephant species, conserved elements were significantly enriched with genes differentially expressed between the species. In Asian elephants, these putative regulatory regions were involved in immunity pathways including tumor-necrosis factor, which plays an important role in EEHV response. Genomic sequences of African bush, forest, and Asian elephant genomes revealed extensive sequence conservation at TP53 retrogene loci across three species, which may be related to TP53 functionality in elephant cancer resistance. Positive selection scans revealed outlier genes related to additional elephant traits. Our study suggests that gene regulation plays an important role in the differential inflammatory response of Asian and African elephants, leading to increased infectious disease and cancer susceptibility in Asian elephants. These genomic discoveries can inform future functional and translational studies aimed at identifying effective treatment approaches for ill elephants, which may improve conservation.     

褐马鸡非使用价值评估及影响因素

野生物种资源的价值评估是保护生物学研究的核心内容,也是物种保护、生态补偿以及TEEB行动计划的理论基础和依据。运用条件价值法(CVM)对珍稀濒危鸟类褐马鸡(Crossoptilon mantchuricum)进行非使用价值评估。研究共回收有效样本503份,其中70.97%有支付意愿,通过平均值法和中位值法估算得出我国城镇人口对褐马鸡的人均支付意愿为28.39—36.88元/a,由此得到褐马鸡的非使用价值在21.89×10~9—28.44×10~9元/a之间。通过建立Logit计量经济模型对支付意愿的影响因素进行分析,进而得到受访者对褐马鸡的了解程度、见过褐马鸡次数、受教育程度及收入水平等因素对支付意愿具有正的影响,其中了解程度的影响最大,而年龄对支付意愿具有负的影响。除此以外,评估的范围、支付意愿的单位以及总样本的设定也会直接影响物种价值评估的结果。     

Expressing citizen preferences on endangered wildlife for building socially appealing species recovery policies: A stated preference experiment in Quebec,Canada

Over the past fifty years, the world's wildlife populations have drastically declined. This stems from multiple causes, including the loss of natural habitat, which plays a vital role. Effective strategies to help endangered wildlife species recovery requires broad public support to be politically viable. In this study, we conducted a randomized survey to elicit and describe the Quebec population’s preferences and concerns regarding endangered wildlife and estimate its willingness-to-pay (WTP) for their recovery. We used stated preference approaches, namely a discrete choice experiment (DCE) and best-worst scaling (BWS), to estimate WTP and rank respondent preferences towards categories of wildlife species and recovery program attributes. In the selection of animals listed, results also reveal strong public preferences for large mammals, more specifically the beluga whale and woodland caribou. Simulation exercises from our DCE results show that a quarter of respondents would be willing to pay $160 per year for a megafauna recovery program compared to $12 for birds, or insects, or fish and molluscs recovery programs. Despite respondents’ strong preferences for the protection of megafauna, BWS and DCE simulation results indicate that a broader multispecies approach would be favoured by a larger segment of the population than a single specie approach. The survey results also revealed that the public likes to spend time in nature and is both concerned about endangered wildlife and aware of the interdependence between humans and nature. Therefore, our findings suggest that policymakers have a social acceptance to use both flagship species and multispecies approaches to implement endangered species recovery strategies. Moreover, our findings and the related literature on the value of ecosystem services indicate that communication on wildlife conservation could be buttressed by emphasizing conservation’s contributions to ecosystem services.     

Farmer perceptions and willingness to pay for novel livestock pest control technologies: A case of tsetse repellent collar in Kwale County in Kenya

Tsetse-transmitted Animal African Trypanosomosis (AAT) is one of the most important constraints to livestock development in Africa. Use of trypanocides has been the most widespread approach for the management of AAT, despite the associated drug resistance and health concerns associated with drug metabolites in animal products. Alternative control measures that target tsetse fly vectors of AAT, though effective, have been hard to sustain in part because these are public goods applied area-wide. The International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (icipe) and partners have developed and implemented a novel tsetse repellent collar (TRC) applied on animals to limit contact of tsetse flies and livestock, thereby reducing AAT transmission. The TRC has now advanced to commercialization. A household-level survey involving 632 cattle keeping households, was conducted in Shimba Hills region of Kwale County, where field trials of the TRC have been previously conducted to assess farmers’ knowledge, perception, and practices towards the management of tsetse flies, their willingness to pay (WTP) for the TRC, and factors affecting the WTP. Almost all the respondents (90%) reported that tsetse flies were the leading cattle infesting pests in the area. About 22% of these correctly identified at least four AAT clinical signs, and even though many (68%) used trypanocidal drugs to manage the disease, 50% did not perceive the drug as being effective in AAT management (50%). Few respondents (8%) were aware of the harmful effects of trypanocidal drugs. About 89% of the respondents were aware of icipe TRC, and 30% of them were using the field trial collars during the survey. Sixty-three (63%) of them were willing to pay for the TRC at the same cost they spend treating an animal for AAT. On average farmers were willing to pay KES 3,352 per animal per year. Male educated household heads are likely to pay more for the TRC. Moreover, perceived high AAT prevalence and severity further increases the WTP. Wider dissemination and commercialization of the herd-level tsetse control approach (TRC) should be encouraged to impede AAT transmission and thus enhance food security and farm incomes among the affected rural communities. Besides the uptake of TRC can be enhanced through training, especially among women farmers.     

Dutch Consumers’ Willingness to Pay for Broiler Welfare

This article analyzes Dutch consumers’ willingness to pay (WTP) for the welfare of broiler chickens and the consequences for nonhuman animal welfare policies. Using data from a discrete-choice experiment and a random parameter logit model, this study showed that consumers particularly value opportunities for outdoor access and the method used for anesthesia before slaughter. The WTP was also positively related to the number of consumers buying the same product, indicating that they experience the public-good dilemma. Moreover, the WTP was higher if consumers knew that animal welfare practices were subject to public or collective supervision. Women, people with more education, those with higher income, and nonreligious people had relatively high WTP values. For 87.5% of the respondents, the WTP exceeded the price difference between a broiler with a higher level of animal welfare and a regular chicken. The findings suggest that the Dutch market for broiler chickens can be improved by raising consumer confidence in the labeling system.     

Vulture distribution and people perception of vultures in Pokhara Valley,Nepal

Due to an abundance and diversity of vultures, Nepal is one of the most important countries for vulture conservation. Within Nepal, the Pokhara Valley is especially significant. We examine the distribution of vultures within the Pokhara Valley by conducting counts at 11 potential feeding or roosting sites using point count method. We further surveyed people of the valley regarding their perception of vulture ecology and conservation, knowledge of diclofenac use within the valley, and burial of livestock carcasses. We detected eight species of vultures, four of which are currently threatened with extinction. White‐rumped vulture Gyps bengalensis, Egyptian vulture Nephron percnopterus, and Himalayan vulture G. himalayensis were the most abundant. Almost all respondents (98%) had sighted the vultures in the wild. Formally educated respondents reported seeing vultures’ slightly more than nonformally educated respondents. Fifty‐eight percent respondents suspected habitat loss was the major threat for the vulture population decline in Pokhara Valley, and 97% respondents were not aware of any diclofenac use. The knowledge of vultures in people with different age groups suggests a more awareness programs are needed for local people, especially those who carry out animal husbandry and provide livestock to the vulture restaurant.     

Using Poaching Levels and Elephant Distribution to Assess the Conservation Efficacy of Private,Communal and Government Land in Northern Kenya

Efforts to curb elephant poaching have focused on reducing demand, confiscating ivory and boosting security patrols in elephant range. Where land is under multiple uses and ownership, determining the local poaching dynamics is important for identifying successful conservation models. Using 2,403 verified elephant, Loxodonta africana, mortality records collected from 2002 to 2012 and the results of aerial total counts of elephants conducted in 2002, 2008 and 2012 for the Laikipia-Samburu ecosystem of northern Kenya, we sought to determine the influence of land ownership and use on diurnal elephant distribution and on poaching levels. We show that the annual proportions of illegally killed (i.e., poached) elephants increased over the 11 years of the study, peaking at 70% of all recorded deaths in 2012. The type of land use was more strongly related to levels of poaching than was the type of ownership. Private ranches, comprising only 13% of land area, hosted almost half of the elephant population and had significantly lower levels of poaching than other land use types except for the officially designated national reserves (covering only 1.6% of elephant range in the ecosystem). Communal grazing lands hosted significantly fewer elephants than expected, but community areas set aside for wildlife demonstrated significantly higher numbers of elephants and lower illegal killing levels relative to non-designated community lands. While private lands had lower illegal killing levels than community conservancies, the success of the latter relative to other community-held lands shows the importance of this model of land use for conservation. This work highlights the relationship between illegal killing and various land ownership and use models, which can help focus anti-poaching activities.     

Elephants of south‐east Angola in war and peace: their decline,re‐colonization and recent status

Angola’s intermittent 27‐year civil war displaced over four million people and decimated wildlife populations. During the 1980s, African elephants (Loxodonta africana Blumenbach) in Angola drew international alarm with reports of 100,000 elephants killed. Luiana Partial Reserve (PR), a conservation area in south‐east Angola, was the military operations centre for UNITA (National Union for the Total Independence of Angola), which used elephant ivory to pay for arms and meat. However, the full impact of the civil war on elephants is uncertain because there are no reliable estimates of Angolan elephant populations. Following the end of the civil war in 2002, our three aerial surveys of Luiana PR indicated that elephant numbers are increasing rapidly, from 366 in January 2004 to 1827 in November 2005, and expanding their range in the Reserve. Concurrently, elephants tagged with satellite collars in northern Botswana and the Caprivi Strip, Namibia, moved into Luiana PR. To facilitate re‐colonization and conservation of elephants and other wildlife in Luiana PR, we recommend: (i) realignment of the veterinary fence on the Botswana–Namibia border; (ii) development of effective land use management and anti‐poaching programmes; (iii) clearing of landmines; (iv) designation of the Reserve a national park; and (v) development of ecotourism and community conservation programmes.     

Fishing cat Prionailurus viverrinus distribution and habitat suitability in Nepal

The fishing cat Prionailurus viverrinus is a wetland specialist species endemic to South and Southeast Asia. Nepal represents the northern limit of its biogeographic range, but comprehensive information on fishing cat distribution in Nepal is lacking. To assess their distribution, we compiled fishing cat occurrence records (n = 154) from Nepal, available in published literature and unpublished data (2009–2020). Bioclimatic and environmental variables associated with their occurrence were used to predict the fishing cat habitat suitability using MaxEnt modeling. Fishing cat habitat suitability was associated with elevation (152–302 m), precipitation of the warmest quarter, i.e., April–June (668–1014 mm), precipitation of the driest month (4–7 mm), and land cover (forest/grassland and wetland). The model predicted an area of 4.4% (6679 km²) of Nepal as potential habitat for the fishing cat. About two‐thirds of the predicted potentially suitable habitat lies outside protected areas; however, a large part of the highly suitable habitat (67%) falls within protected areas. The predicted habitat suitability map serves as a reference for future investigation into fishing cat distribution as well as formulating and implementing effective conservation programs in Nepal. Fishing cat conservation initiatives should include habitats inside and outside the protected areas to ensure long‐term survival. We recommend conservation of wetland sites, surveys of fishing cats in the identified potential habitats, and studying their genetic connectivity and population status.     

基于CVM的黄河三角洲城市噪声环境质量改善的居民支付意愿研究

运用CVM和统计分析方法,调查了黄河三角洲城市噪声环境质量改善居民的支付意愿,得出愿意为城市噪声质量改善支付部分金钱的占71.3%,支付额平均为3.64元/(月.人);性别和教育程度对居民支付意愿均无显著影响,年龄、月收入和噪声影响程度对居民支付意愿均呈显著的正相关关系,职业对支付意愿有显著影响,但变化规律不明显。性别和噪声影响程度对支付水平无显著影响,年龄和教育程度对支付水平均呈显著负相关关系,职业和月收入对支付水平呈显著正相关关系。     

Forest conservation and environmental management in Nepal: a review

This paper provides information on the status of forests and environmental problems related to forestry in Nepal. It aims to integrate the conservation and sustainable management of forests as a part of environmental planning. A critical review of the main environmental problems with prioritization within the forestry sector; thorough review of all forest related documents, strategies, development plans, programs, institutional arrangements, policies mentioned in the Master Plan for Forestry Sector Nepal of 1988, and other relevant documents; identification of major gaps and constraints of forestry policy and plans and current practices of forest conservation and management have been done. The decline in forestry resources in Nepal took place in the past due to lack of appropriate policy to guide the legal, institutional and operational development for the forestry sector. Forestry policy in Nepal, in the past, was shaped by political and economic motives rather than ecological considerations. Policy formulation mechanisms exist in Nepal; however, there is an excessive delay in translating policies into legislation and then into operational rules and administrative orders. There is a need to implement the international obligations by transforming them into regulations in order to make them legally binding. The data to be generated in the coming years in the areas of forestry at both national and international levels suggest that we should revise the research priorities and strategies. Research to add value to the forest resource products has yet been neglected. More attention is required on regular monitoring and evaluation of the projects. A thorough evaluation of the programs and planning for the forestry sector in Nepal is urgently required to update the progress and revise the programs.     

Environmental attitudes and preference for wetland conservation in Malaysia

The incorporation of latent psychological factors in wetland valuation studies may improve our understanding of why some people value ecosystem services while others do not. This article focuses on public preferences for enhanced protection of the Setiu Wetland in Malaysia and explores the influence of environmental attitude on preference and the willingness to pay (WTP) for wetland conservation. The study reported here employs a discrete choice experiment to investigate household's WTP for a set of wetland attributes. A scale-adjusted latent class (SALC) model is applied to identify a latent preference structure combining choice attributes with attitude measures derived from the New Ecological Paradigm (NEP). We identified four NEP components in the respondent population to integrate with SALC model, and this revealed four latent classes and two scale classes which varied in their preferences. Class 1 was largely against wetland protection, although it showed a flooding preference, and was more likely to be ‘Anthropocentric’ but less likely to be ‘Biocentric’. Class 2 had a positive preference for all attributes, and was more likely to be ‘Biocentric’. Class 3 did not refer to any of the NEP components. A handful of responses in Class 4 were respondents more likely to be in the ‘Risk of overuse’ group and less likely to be ‘Anthropocentric’. The result suggests that natural resource managers need to evaluate people's concerns over environmental protection to understand potentially conflicting views across populations.