Physiological and behavioral responses of horses during police training

Mounted police horses have to cope with challenging, unpredictable situations when on duty and it is essential to gain insight into how these horses handle stress to warrant their welfare. The aim of the study was to evaluate physiological and behavioral responses of 12 (six experienced and six inexperienced) police horses during police training. Horses were evaluated during four test settings at three time points over a 7-week period: outdoor track test, street track test, indoor arena test and smoke machine test. Heart rate (HR; beats/min), HR variability (HRV; root means square of successive differences; ms), behavior score (BS; scores 0 to 5) and standard police performance score (PPS; scores 1 to 0) were obtained per test. All data were statistically evaluated using a linear mixed model (Akaike's Information criterium; t > 2.00) or logistic regression (P < 0.05). HR of horses was increased at indoor arena test (98 ± 26) and smoke machine test (107 ± 25) compared with outdoor track (80 ± 12, t = 2.83 and t = 3.91, respectively) and street track tests (81 ± 14, t = 2.48 and t = 3.52, respectively). HRV of horses at the indoor arena test (42.4 ± 50.2) was significantly lower compared with street track test (85.7 ± 94.3 and t = 2.78). BS did not show significant differences between tests and HR of horses was not always correlated with the observed moderate behavioral responses. HR, HRV, PPS and BS did not differ between repetition of tests and there were no significant differences in any of the four tests between experienced and inexperienced horses. No habituation occurred during the test weeks, and experience as a police horse does not seem to be a key factor in how these horses handle stress. All horses showed only modest behavioral responses, and HR may provide complimentary information for individual evaluation and welfare assessment of these horses. Overall, little evidence of stress was observed during these police training tests. As three of these tests (excluding the indoor arena test) reflect normal police work, it is suggested that this kind of police work is not significantly stressful for horses and will have no negative impact on the horse's welfare.     

Reaction of laying hens to humans in the home or a novel environment

Tests assessing the fear of humans by measuring avoidance or approach reactions of the test animals towards humans can be useful tools in welfare assessment schemes. In this study, we wanted to compare tests assessing the reactions of laying hens towards humans in the home environment to a test performed in a novel environment. As well we investigated inter-test correlations in the home environment. We performed several tests to assess the hens’ approach and avoidance reactions towards an unfamiliar human inside the home environment of laying hens in 14 caged flocks and 10 free-range flocks. We measured the reactions of hens to a stationary person and a moving person approaching individual hens in both systems, as well as reactions to a stationary person trying to touch individual hens in non-cage systems and reactions of caged hens to a person passing by. Additionally, a standardised arena test was performed outside the home environment to compare the birds’ avoidance reactions towards an approaching human in a novel environment. In caged hens no significant correlations of tests performed inside the home environment with the arena test could be found, but there were moderate to high correlations (r_s > 0.6) with one parameter of the arena test in non-caged hens. The different tests applied inside the home environment correlated significantly and moderately to highly with each other, supporting the validity of these tests to measure fear of humans. The caged laying hens in our study reacted differently in the novel environment from the non-caged birds, indicating that the birds’ reactions towards humans in an unfamiliar environment depend on the housing system. In summary, a comparison of the level of fear of humans between flocks in different housing systems by using an arena test outside the home environment seems difficult and was not possible in the present study.     

Dispersal movements of non-native and native terrestrial slugs in an urban environment

Animal movement varies from undirected dispersal to directed migration. Movement rates may have implications for conservation and resource management, as well as pest control, and they play a key role in invasion success. In slugs, long-distance dispersal is typically passive, whereas active movement is critical for local dispersal and determines access to resources such as food and shelter. Telemetry has recently been used to study individual slug movements in the wild, whereas movement in arena tests has explored mechanisms of interspecific competition and invasiveness in slugs. Studies that relate the performance of individual slugs in arena tests to their post-release behavior in nature are lacking. We measured individual short-term movement speed of commonly occurring native and non-native slugs of the genera Arion and Limax in arena tests and tracked their post-release dispersal movements in a garden by PIT telemetry. We demonstrate clear differences in movement behavior among the species, but non-native slugs did not display higher movement rates than their native congeners. In the arena test, slugs of the genus Limax displayed a higher short-term speed than slugs of the genus Arion, whereas in the field, individuals of Limax maximus showed lower dispersal rates compared to the other slug species. Moreover, there was a positive correlation between short-term speed in the arena test and movement in the field among individuals of L. cinereoniger, indicating the possible existence of behavioral syndromes in slugs, which may link movement ecology, animal personality, and the invasion ecology of pest species.     

The behavioural, physiological and immunological responses of lambs from two rearing systems and two genotypes to exposure to humans

The behavioural, physiological and immunological responses of lambs from two rearing systems and two genotypes to exposure to humans was assessed during and immediately after testing in an open-field arena. Ninety-six lambs of two genotypes (Scottish Blackface: BF and Texelx(Blue-faced LeicesterxScottish Blackface): T) were used. From birth to weaning one of two management regimes was applied: extensive (E), whereby animals were handled as little as possible or semi-intensive (I), in which lambs experienced a greater level of human exposure. Eight lambs from each of the four treatment groups received an antigenic challenge (Mycobacterium a. paratuberculosis) at 9 weeks of age to allow subsequent testing of immunological reactivity. At 1 and 3 weeks after weaning and 1 year later, lambs were tested in groups of four in a 4.5x4.5 m indoor arena, marked with gridlines at 0.75 m intervals. There were a number of occasions where testing revealed significant effects of genotype, management or their interaction, but in an approximately equal number of instances no significant effects of either genotype or management were observed. Genotype significantly influenced the number of squares occupied in the test arena over a 10-min period before the human entered (100.4 vs. 110.5; sed 2.70 for BF and T lambs, respectively, p<0.001). In relation to the number of new squares entered, there was a genotypexmanagement interaction: BFE lambs entered fewer squares than TE lambs but following semi-intensive management (I) BF lambs entered more squares than T lambs (p<0.05). When a human entered the arena after this 10-min period, while there was a gradual reduction in the number of animals which had not moved over the next 5 min, 66 animals had not moved within the allocated time. Also during this period, BF lambs stood facing the human for significantly longer than T lambs (p<0.05). At the time of arena testing, 12 lambs from each treatment group were fitted with heart-rate monitoring equipment. There were significant differences in heart rate in relation to period of testing, i.e. before (107.9) or after (112.3) the point at which the human entered the arena or when the lambs were walking in the presence of a moving human (126.3 b.p.m.; sed 2.15, p<0.001). When lambs were alone in the test arena, BF lambs had higher heart rates than T lambs (p<0.05). The heart rate of E lambs increased more than that of I lambs when the human entered the pen (9.4 vs. 0.3 b.p.m.; sed 3.95, respectively; p=0.05). Immediately following completion of the behavioural tests, blood samples were collected from subsets of lambs. Plasma cortisol concentrations of BF lambs were greater than those of T lambs (82.0 vs. 53.5 nmol/l; sed 10.18, p<0.01) but there was no effect of management. Blood samples collected from the lambs challenged with a novel antigen prior to weaning showed a genotype but not a management effect on both antibody and cell mediated immune responses, although there was a genotypexmanagement interaction. However, it should also be noted that there were no significant effects of either genotype or management on a number of the indices recorded: latency of lambs to move from the initial entry position in the absence or subsequent presence of a human; length of time one individual was separated from the other three; distance moved in a raceway before stopping; plasma beta-endorphin concentrations; heart rate in the presence of a human. Overall, these results suggest that although differences in responsiveness associated with specific genotypes of sheep can be detected in a test situation, the early life management regime may also have an effect. The results of this study caution against drawing conclusions between studies where different genotypes are employed.     

Variation in susceptibility to benznidazole in isolates derived from Trypanosoma cruzi parental strains.

In this work, the susceptibility to benznidazole of two parental Trypanosoma cruzi strains, Colombian and Berenice-78, was compared to isolates obtained from dogs infected with these strains for several years. In order to evaluate the susceptibility to benznidazole two groups of mice were infected with one of five distinct populations isolated from dogs as well as the two parental strains of T. cruzi. The first group was treated with benznidazole during the acute phase and the second remained untreated controls. The animals were considered cured when parasitological and serological tests remained persistently negative. Mice infected with the Colombian strain and its isolates Colombian (A and B) did not cure after treatment. On the other hand, all animals infected with Berenice-78 were cured by benznidazole treatment. However, 100%, 50% and 70% of cure rates were observed in animals infected with the isolates Berenice-78 B, C and D, respectively. No significant differences were observed in serological profile of infected control groups, with all animals presenting high antibody levels. However, the ELISA test showed differences in serological patterns between mice inoculated with the different T. cruzi isolates and treated with benznidazole. This variability was dependent on the T. cruzi population used and seemed to be associated with the level of resistance to benznidazole.     

Measuring social tolerance: An experimental approach in two lemurid primates

Social tolerance crucially affects the life of group‐living animals as it can influence, among other things, their competitive regimes, access to food, learning behavior, and recruitment. However, social tolerance tests were mainly conducted in semi‐free or captive populations, and we know little about the behavioral mechanisms and consequences of social tolerance under natural conditions. We therefore developed a co‐feeding experiment to measure social tolerance in groups of wild and captive animals across two primate species. Specifically, we recorded the social tolerance level of redfronted lemurs (Eulemur rufifrons, four wild, one captive group) and ringtailed lemurs (Lemur catta, three wild, three captive groups) by presenting a clumped food resource in an experimental arena, and recorded patterns of resource use during the experiment. Because redfronted lemurs exhibit lower levels of decided conflicts than ringtailed lemurs, we predicted that they would be socially more tolerant. The probability for an individual to feed in the arena was higher in redfronted lemurs than in ringtailed lemurs. In addition, in both species, the probability for an individual to feed in the arena was higher in the captive populations than in their wild counterparts, suggesting that proximate factors, such as a relaxation of feeding competition in captivity, may adapt species‐specific levels of social tolerance to local levels of food availability. Hence, the number of individuals co‐feeding on a valuable food resource appears to be a useful proxy of social tolerance that could be measured with this experimental setup in other wild and captive species as well.     

Olfactory cues in discrimination among individuals in dominance hierarchies in the cockroach, Nauphoeta cinerea

ABSTRACT. The purpose of this study was to explore the olfactory recognition mechanisms used by individual subordinate male cockroaches, Nauphoeta cinerea (Olivier), in a dominance hierarchy. Results of two independent sets of experiments, one using an olfactometer and the other using an arena, suggest that olfactory cues are important to males. Subordinate males did not avoid dominant male odour in an olfactometer but could discriminate between the odours of familiar and unfamiliar individual dominant males, preferring the odour of the dominant male with which they had previous social contact. Since test subordinates did not avoid dominant male odours in the olfactometer, it is possible that the distance an individual remains from a dominant is important. To test this, individual dominant and subordinate males were tethered in the centre of an arena. Subordinate males were introduced into the arena and allowed to approach the tethered male. They approached tethered dominants and subordinates differently, and tended to keep away from the dominants. Tethered males unfamiliar to the test animals were avoided as well.     

Aggregation in woodlice: social interaction and density effects

Terrestrial isopods are known to be sensitive to humidity, brightness or temperature. Until now, aggregation was assumed to depend on these sensitivities as a result of individual preferences. In this paper, we show that the social component is also important in the isopod aggregation phenomenon. In experimental arenas with two identical shelters up to nearly 90% of woodlice aggregated under shelters. This aggregation was quick as in 10 minutes most of the animals aggregated, irrespective of their density. Nonetheless, 10-15% of the animals walked around the arena, rarely forming very small and short-lasting aggregates outside shelters. Woodlice aggregated preferably under one of the shelters in 77% of experiments. Indeed, almost 80% of the animals out of 40, 60 or 80 animals in the arena aggregated under one shelter. In arenas with 100 individuals the aggregations were proportionally smaller (70%). Our results revealed that 70 animals was a maximum number of woodlice in an aggregate. We concluded that the location of aggregates is strongly governed by individual preferences but the dynamics of aggregation and collective choice are controlled by social interaction between congeners. The tested densities of the animals in the arena did not impact the aggregation patterns.     

Individuality in the use of orientation cues by green frogs

The common assumption that test groups are motivationally homogeneous and utilize the same orientation reference cues may not be correct. Green frogs (Rana clamitans) were trained in a circular arena to seek a goalbox located 90° counterclockwise from a lamp. Most frogs learned the task, but an analysis of the training and testing records showed marked individuality in task learning. Some frogs found the goalbox only with the lamp as a cue; others used the goalbox, the goalbox and lamp, or the goalbox and the lamp separately as cues. One individual learned to orient non-randomly to some still-unknown but geographically fixed cue. These observations show that even though frogs can learn a common task, under supposedly identical training conditions they may utilize a diversity of cues. Larger (thus, older) frogs were significantly more consistent in their patterns of movement. Paths of movement that succeeded in reaching the goal tended to be repeated in later tests. Frogs trained to move around a partition to a goal continued that path even when the obstruction was later removed, suggesting the use of a motor memory or kinaesthesia. Standard orientation tests, in which the group was significantly oriented in the expected direction, were shown on closer inspection to consist of frogs moving according to several individually stereotyped factors. Thus, the heterogeneity of individual experimental animals should be more fully taken into consideration in orientation research.     

Searching for differences in the behavioural response of piglet groups subjected to novel situations

The Backtest (BT), the Open Field (OF) and the Novel Object (NO) tests have been used to identify individual reaction patterns in piglets and to measure parameters that previous studies have shown to be correlated to the coping strategies of animals. The BT allows for the classification of piglets into two different “coping styles”: high-resisting (HR) and low-resisting (LR), which respectively correspond to a (pro-)active and passive (or reactive) behavioural response.During previous research, the subjects were tested singularly, so the aim of this study was to investigate if differences between HR and LR animals could be detected when piglets are tested in a group using the OP and NO tests.A total of 132 piglets were subjected to the BT and then were housed in groups consisting of four individuals each so as to obtain HR pens, LR pens and mixed pens. We found differences in the pigs’ behaviour during the OF and the NO tests and according to the type of group. Individual differences in the behavioural response of piglets to the Backtest were not predictive of the behavioural response of the animals subjected to the OF or to NO tests.Our results show that there are no relevant differences between HR and LR piglets when they are subjected in a group to novel situations.     

The effect of Hoe-427 (an ACTH4-9 analog) on free-choice ethanol consumption in male and female rats.

Ethanol consummatory patterns of individual male and female rats and the effects of Hoe-427 (Ebiratide), an ACTH4-9 analog, thereon, were studied in a test system using 24 hour, two-bottle free choice consumption between 0.2% saccharin and 10% ethanol in 0.2% saccharin. Single, daily i.p. doses (0.03mg/rat) of either ACTH4-10 or its analog resulted in a significant reduction of daily ethanol consumption with no effects on saccharin consumption. After 4 days of treatment, male rats consistently exhibited a rebound increase in ethanol consumption; this effect was not seen in females. The daily ethanol consummatory patterns of the female animals seemed to exhibit a 4-6 day cyclic rhythymicity, suggesting an interaction with estrous cycles. These results support a role for ACTH4-10 in the initiation of ethanol consummatory behavior in rats and suggests the existence of sex differences in this phenomenon.     

Behavioural patterns, preference, and motivation of female midwife toads during phonotaxis tests

During two-speaker phonotaxis tests performed with female midwife toads (Alytes obstetricans and A. cisternasii), the occurrence of behavioural patterns tentatively considered to be associated with entering amplexus and making a mate choice was noted. The individual repeatability of choice was assessed as a measurement of reliability of female preference, and the individual repeatability of response was assessed as a measurement of the degree of female motivation. The tests were grouped in two categories, spectral and temporal, according to the acoustic variable addressed in the test. Females selecting the alternative chosen less often by the population responded less often in phonotaxis tests and thus could be less motivated. Female repeatability was significant for temporal tests, but not for spectral tests. The observation of behavioural patterns during phonotaxis tests appears to be a useful complement to mate choice studies in anurans. Electronic Publication     

Networks and dominance hierarchies: does interspecific aggression explain flower partitioning among stingless bees?

1. The distribution of consumers among resources (trophic interaction network) may be shaped by asymmetric competition. Dominance hierarchy models predict that asymmetric interference competition leads to a domination of high quality resources by hierarchically superior species. 2. In order to determine the competitive dominance hierarchy and its effect on flower partitioning in a local stingless bee community in Borneo, interspecific aggressions were tested among eight species in arena experiments. 3. All species tested were strongly mutually aggressive in the arena, and the observed interactions were often lethal for one or both opponents. Aggression significantly increased with body size differences between fighting pairs and was asymmetric: larger aggressors were superior over smaller species. Additional aggression tests involved dummies with surface extracts, and results suggest that species‐ and colony‐specific surface profiles are important in triggering the aggressive behaviour. 4. Sixteen stingless bee species were observed foraging on 41 species of flowering plants. The resulting bee–flower interaction network showed a high degree of generalisation (network‐level specialisation H₂’ = 0.11), corresponding to a random, opportunistic distribution of bee species among available flower species. 5. Aggressions on flowers were rare and only occurred at a low level. The dominance hierarchy obtained in the arena experiments did not correlate significantly with plant quality, estimated as the number of flowers per plant or as total bee visitation rate. 6. Our findings suggest that asymmetries in interference competition do not necessarily translate into actual resource partitioning in the context of complex interacting communities.     

Variation in personality and behavioural plasticity across four populations of the great tit Parus major

1. Interest in the evolutionary origin and maintenance of individual behavioural variation and behavioural plasticity has increased in recent years. 2. Consistent individual behavioural differences imply limited behavioural plasticity, but the proximate causes and wider consequences of this potential constraint remain poorly understood. To date, few attempts have been made to explore whether individual variation in behavioural plasticity exists, either within or between populations. 3. We assayed 'exploration behaviour' among wild-caught individual great tits Parus major when exposed to a novel environment room in four populations across Europe. We quantified levels of individual variation within and between populations in average behaviour, and in behavioural plasticity with respect to (i) repeated exposure to the room (test sequence), (ii) the time of year in which the assays were conducted and (iii) the interval between successive tests, all of which indicate habituation to novelty and are therefore of functional significance. 4. Consistent individual differences ('I') in behaviour were present in all populations; repeatability (range: 0.34-0.42) did not vary between populations. Exploration behaviour was also plastic, increasing with test sequence - but less so when the interval between subsequent tests was relatively large - and time of year; populations differed in the magnitude of plasticity with respect to time of year and test interval. Finally, the between-individual variance in exploration behaviour increased significantly from first to repeat tests in all populations. Individuals with high initial scores showed greater increases in exploration score than individuals with low initial scores; individual by environment interaction ('I × E') with respect to test sequence did not vary between populations. 5. Our findings imply that individual variation in both average level of behaviour and behavioural plasticity may generally characterize wild great tit populations and may largely be shaped by mechanisms acting within populations. Experimental approaches are now needed to confirm that individual differences in behavioural plasticity (habituation) - not other hidden biological factors - caused the observed patterns of I × E. Establishing the evolutionary causes and consequences of this variation in habituation to novelty constitutes an exciting future challenge.     

Enhancement of performances in a learning task in suckler calves after weaning and relocation: Motivational versus cognitive control?: A pilot study

Weaning in suckler calves influences performance in a learning task. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether the improved performance after weaning, including relocation, is due to differences in motivation for the reward or in learning abilities. Forty Aubrac calves were used; half of them were weaned from their dams at around eight months, the other half were weaned one month later. After weaning, calves were housed in groups of four in a new setting. From the day after weaning of the last group of calves, the animals were subjected to two tests: (1) an arena test, (2) a T-maze test where one arm led to either a social or a food reward. The T-maze test consisted of three sessions: in Session 1, trials were conducted until the animal acquired the task (i.e. did not take the unrewarded arm on three consecutive trials); in Session 2, the motivation for the reward was assessed via the walking time of the animal to reach the reward; in Session 3, the place of reward was reversed and the animals were trained until they acquired the new task.

Calves weaned for one day explored more (P < 0.05) and had lower heart rates during the arena test (P < 0.05) compared to the ones weaned for one month. During the T-maze test, calves weaned for one month versus one day did not differ in their capacities to learn the initial route (Session 1) or in their motivation for either the social or food reward (Session 2). Calves weaned for one day learned significantly faster (P < 0.05) the reversed route (Session 3) than calves weaned for one month. Hence, the better performances at reversal in the T-maze by calves that have just been weaned cannot be accounted for by a higher motivation for the reward. A better cognitive control of their behaviour due to a lower stress state is suggested by our results.     

Increased exposure to predators increases both exploration and activity level in Brachyrhaphis episcopi

Two temperament traits, tendency to explore and activity level, were measured in a tropical poeciliid fish, the Panamanian bishop Brachyrhaphis episcopi. Open-field arena tests were used to quantify how predation pressure shapes activity levels and exploratory behaviours. Fish behaviour differed between high and low-predation populations. Fish that experienced higher levels of predation were both more explorative and more active. There were also some individual differences within populations; fish varied in their levels of exploration and activity in a novel open arena, but these differences were not related to sex or size. Together with previous studies on this species, these results indicate that there is a behavioural syndrome associated with predation pressure. Fish from high-predation populations are bolder, more explorative and more active than those from low-predation populations.     

Comparative analysis of experimental testing procedures for the elicitation of rescue actions in ants

Rescue behavior is observed when 1 individual provides help to another individual in danger. Most reports of rescue behavior concern ants (Formicidae), in which workers rescue each other from various types of entrapment. Many of these entrapment situations can be simulated in the laboratory using an entrapment bioassay, in which ants confront a single endangered nest mate entrapped on a sandy arena by means of an artificial snare. Here, we compared numerous characteristics of rescue actions (contact between individuals, digging around the entrapped individual, pulling at its body parts, transport of the sand covering it, and biting the snare entrapping it) in Formica cinerea ants. We performed entrapment tests in the field and in the laboratory, with the latter under varying conditions in terms of the number of ants potentially engaged in rescue actions and the arena substrate (marked or unmarked by ants’ pheromones). Rescue actions were more probable and pronounced in the field than in the laboratory, regardless of the type of test. Moreover, different test types in the laboratory yielded inconsistent results and showed noteworthy variability depending on the tested characteristic of rescue. Our results illustrate the specifics of ant rescue actions elicited in the natural setting, which is especially important considering the scarcity of field data. Furthermore, our results underline the challenges related to the comparison of results from different types of entrapment tests reported in the available literature. Additionally, our study shows how animal behavior differs in differing experimental setups used to answer the same questions.     

The orientation and navigation of juvenile alligators: evidence of magnetic sensitivity

Summary Displaced juvenile alligators,Alligator mississipiensis, were released on land in a 9 m diameter dodecagonal arena to test their ability to orient in the absence of terrestrial landmarks. Navigational ability seemed to improve with age. When displaced along a fairly direct route yearlings (age 7–14 months) compensated for their displacement, moving in the direction from the arena to their home sites. When displaced by a circuitous route, yearlings failed to compensate for their displacement, exhibiting instead simple compass orientation in a direction that would have returned them to water had they been released on land near the site where they were captured. The older juveniles were oriented in a homeward direction under all displacement and test conditions.The latter animals may have been using geomagnetic map information to select their homeward directions as the errors in their homeward bearings correlated with small deviations in the geomagnetic field's dip angle at the time of the test (1980r _s=–0.6047,P=0.0131, all testsr _s= –0.4652,P=0.0084). This effect appeared to depend on a very short-term assessment of geomagnetic conditions, as values measured 20 min before or 30 min after the tests began did not correlate with the directions the animals moved. The older juveniles appeared to use magnetically quiet hours on the night of their capture as the baseline from which to measure the geomagnetic deviations that occurred at the time of the arena test. The magnitude of the magnetic effect in the older animals suggests that the geomagnetic information may have been used to perform a map step, as small fluctuations in dip angle correlated with much larger deviations in homeward bearings. In addition, the compass-oriented yearlings and the seemingly route-based behavior of the homeward-oriented yearlings did not appear to be influenced by geomagnetic conditions. These findings have many parallels in results obtained from bird orientation studies, providing evidence that navigation may share a common basis in different vertebrate groups.     

Morris water maze: procedures for assessing spatial and related forms of learning and memory

The Morris water maze (MWM) is a test of spatial learning for rodents that relies on distal cues to navigate from start locations around the perimeter of an open swimming arena to locate a submerged escape platform. Spatial learning is assessed across repeated trials and reference memory is determined by preference for the platform area when the platform is absent. Reversal and shift trials enhance the detection of spatial impairments. Trial-dependent, latent and discrimination learning can be assessed using modifications of the basic protocol. Search-to-platform area determines the degree of reliance on spatial versus non-spatial strategies. Cued trials determine whether performance factors that are unrelated to place learning are present. Escape from water is relatively immune from activity or body mass differences, making it ideal for many experimental models. The MWM has proven to be a robust and reliable test that is strongly correlated with hippocampal synaptic plasticity and NMDA receptor function. We present protocols for performing variants of the MWM test, from which results can be obtained from individual animals in as few as 6 days.     

Long-term effects of different handling procedures on behavioural, physiological, and production-related parameters in silver foxes

Fifty-one silver fox vixens, subjected to three different handling treatments as cubs (no-handling, gentle or forced handling), were studied for long-term effects on behavioural, physiological and production-related parameters in a one and a half year period following the last handling session. As juveniles, the animals were exposed to three different behavioural tests at 18, 22, 28, and 32 weeks of age. Both forcibly and gently handled animals showed reduced fear responses compared with nonhandled controls in test situations involving close contact with humans (P < 0.05). The foxes were tested again as adults at 10, 13, 15, and 18 months of age with the same behavioural tests. It was revealed that forcibly handled animals persistently showed reduced fear responses compared with control animals, both in close contact with humans and when exposed to a novel object, whereas gently handled animals only differed from control animals in one of the tests involving some human contact and when exposed to a novel object (P < 0.05). Significant differences between adult gently handled and forcibly handled animals were found in the “confront’ test involving close human contact. In this test more flight responses were observed in the gently handled group than in the forcibly handled group (P < 0.01). Control animals had significantly larger adrenal weights compared with both forcibly handled animals and gently handled animals at 22 months of age (total mean adrenal weight: controls, 0.62 g; gentle, 0.54 g; forced, 0.54 g, P < 0.05, general linear models). Other physiological measures and production-related parameters such as body weight, body size, gastric ulceration and pelt qualities did not differ between treatments (P > 0.05). Early post-weaning handling made foxes less fearful towards humans. Forced handling seemed somewhat superior to gentle handling as a means to produce animals which, in the long term, adapted better to the farm environment both behaviourally and physiologically. Non-handled control animals suffered from long-term stress as reflected by high levels of fear responses and enlarged adrenals. Thus post-weaning handling may be beneficial in the long term for the wellbeing of farmed foxes. When applied as a management routine, handling had no significant influence on later production-related parameters and was not considered an economic risk.