Reinterpreting the State of Fisheries and their Management

Abstract A series of recent high-profile papers in Science and Nature have led readers to believe that most fisheries worldwide are overexploited and that current fisheries management practices have universally failed. In reality, current fisheries management is working well to achieve the legislated objective of MSY in some countries but is failing in others. Here, I present three interpretations about the status of fisheries management that are widely accepted and for each consider an alternative interpretation of the data. I propose that, rather than abandoning current approaches to fisheries management, we should expand the use of the management tools used in fisheries that currently achieve biological and economic sustainability.     

Improving Compliance in U.S. Federal Fisheries: An Enforcement Agency Perspective

Fisheries enforcement is frequently overlooked in the U.S. federal fisheries management process. However, absent high levels of compliance, without fisheries enforcement even the most robust fisheries management plan may fail. Coupling past studies of compliance in fisheries with studies of regulatory enforcement, this paper identifies several measures for increasing the effectiveness of U.S. federal fisheries enforcement. Implementing these measures into the United States Coast Guard's fisheries law enforcement program will make the Agency's enforcement efforts more effective, potentially increasing the level of compliance in federal fisheries.­     

Tidier Fisheries Management Requires a New MOP (Management-oriented Paradigm)

Our experience of fisheries management is one of regular disappointments. As well as occasional spectacular collapses, fisheries have often had to make severe and painful adjustments in the face of overexploitation and overinvestment. The failures of fisheries management may result from failing to consider the management of fisheries as a whole system. A management-oriented paradigm (MOP) crosses the boundaries of traditional fisheries scientific, economic and policy research. It involves formulating management objectives that are measurable, specifying sets of decision rules, and specifying the data and methods to be used, all in such a way that the properties of the resultant system can be prospectively evaluated. The prospective evaluation of a management system involves the use of computer simulations and the development of performance measures that demonstrate the likely success of a management system in meeting its objectives.     

Roles of experimental marine ecology in coastal management and conservation

The paper reviews the main findings of rocky shore and subtidal nearshore experimental marine ecology (EME) in cold and temperate marine ecosystems during the past four decades. It analyzes the role of EME in coastal management and conservation. The historical development of strategies for managing single or multispecies fisheries are reviewed. The published results show over-exploitation and depletion of more than 60% of the fish stocks and a lack of connection between the management of fisheries and results derived from experimental marine ecology. This is mainly due to: (a) the different temporal and spatial scale at which most marine ecologists and fishery managers operate; (b) the lack of long-term fishery monitoring and adaptive techniques for management; and (c) limitations in the design of experiments on fisheries. Large-scale oceanic perturbations, due to combinations of excessive resource exploitation and environmental variability coupled with present trends in management approaches are discussed. Modern approaches and tools for management of fisheries, such as Adaptive Management (AM), Territorial User Rights in Fisheries (TURFs), Individual Transferrable Quotas and Non-Transferrable Quotas (ITQs, INTQs) are discussed in the context of small-scale fisheries and EME. Published views on limits of applied ecological research with regards to management of fisheries are discussed. Linkages between EME, marine conservation and the establishment of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) and experimental exclusions of humans are highlighted. Results derived from MPAs, such as: (a) species or community trophic cascades, and (b) the role of key-stone species and species interaction strengths, are discussed. It is concluded that the role of EME in conservation has been greater than has been the case in management of fisheries. The potential to link EME, conservation and the management of fisheries is exemplified through the proposed establishment in Chile of a connected network of Scientific Reserves, MPAs and TURFs sites. The final conclusion is that to cross-fertilize EME, conservation and management, there are three main challenges: (1) to end the traditional view of approaching the management of fisheries and marine conservation as contradictory/antagonizing issues; (2) to improve communications between experimental marine ecology and the management of fisheries through the implementation of experimentation and adaptive management; (3) to improve linkages between marine conservation, the management of fisheries and social sciences.     

Shifts in fisheries management: adapting to regime shifts

For many years, fisheries management was based on optimizing yield and maintaining a target biomass, with little regard given to low-frequency environmental forcing. However, this policy was often unsuccessful. In the last two to three decades, fisheries science and management have undergone a shift towards balancing sustainable yield with conservation, with the goal of including ecosystem considerations in decision-making frameworks. Scientific understanding of low-frequency climate–ocean variability, which is manifested as ecosystem regime shifts and states, has led to attempts to incorporate these shifts and states into fisheries assessment and management. To date, operationalizing these attempts to provide tactical advice has met with limited success. We review efforts to incorporate regime shifts and states into the assessment and management of fisheries resources, propose directions for future investigation and outline a potential framework to include regime shifts and changes in ecosystem states into fisheries management.     

Management Effectiveness of the World's Marine Fisheries

Ongoing declines in production of the world's fisheries may have serious ecological and socioeconomic consequences. As a result, a number of international efforts have sought to improve management and prevent overexploitation, while helping to maintain biodiversity and a sustainable food supply. Although these initiatives have received broad acceptance, the extent to which corrective measures have been implemented and are effective remains largely unknown. We used a survey approach, validated with empirical data, and enquiries to over 13,000 fisheries experts (of which 1,188 responded) to assess the current effectiveness of fisheries management regimes worldwide; for each of those regimes, we also calculated the probable sustainability of reported catches to determine how management affects fisheries sustainability. Our survey shows that 7% of all coastal states undergo rigorous scientific assessment for the generation of management policies, 1.4% also have a participatory and transparent processes to convert scientific recommendations into policy, and 0.95% also provide for robust mechanisms to ensure the compliance with regulations; none is also free of the effects of excess fishing capacity, subsidies, or access to foreign fishing. A comparison of fisheries management attributes with the sustainability of reported fisheries catches indicated that the conversion of scientific advice into policy, through a participatory and transparent process, is at the core of achieving fisheries sustainability, regardless of other attributes of the fisheries. Our results illustrate the great vulnerability of the world's fisheries and the urgent need to meet well-identified guidelines for sustainable management; they also provide a baseline against which future changes can be quantified.     

“Simultaneous and Complementary Advances”: Mid-century Expectations of the Interaction of Fisheries Science and Management

The simultaneous development of fisheries science and fisheries management that Ray Beverton and Sydney Holt envisioned in 1957 is argued not to have occurred over the past 40 years. The causes of the many failures of fisheries management have been too frequently a matter of informal debate, and almost never a matter of scientific testing of hypotheses. A broader scope for fisheries science is suggested that would be required as a basis for testing hypotheses about the causes of the failure of simultaneous and complementary advances of the science and management of fisheries. The history of the science and management of the International Whaling Commission is used as an example of the scientific scope required to adequately test hypothesized causes of the failures of fisheries management, and to emphasize the relevance of such testing to evaluating the likely success of current management proposals.     

Application of marine reserves to reef fisheries management

Abstract Establishing permanent ‘no-take’ marine reserves, areas where fishing and all other extractive activities are prohibited, is an attractive but under-utilized tool for fisheries management. Marine reserves could potentially deal with many fishery problems that are not effectively addressed by other traditional management measures; they also offer numerous social, economic, and scientific benefits not directly related to fisheries. Limited but growing research has shown beneficial biological and economic effects of marine reserves on fisheries. More research is needed, especially at larger scales, to determine the ideal marine reserve size, number and location necessary to optimize fisheries productivity and resource conservation. Sufficient evidence is available to justify the expanded use of marine reserves in an adaptive approach to fisheries management.     

Ecological, environmental and socioeconomic aspects of the Lake Victoria's introduced Nile perch fishery in relation to the native fisheries and the species culture potential: lessons to learn

Inland fishery ecosystems in Africa are characterized by patterns of overexploitation, environmental degradation and exotic species introductions. Ecological complexity and diversity of aquatic habitats dictate that fishes in general are not evenly distributed in a water body. However, fisheries management regimes tend to ignore this basic principle, assume generalized conditions in a water body, and focus more on ‘desired’ objectives such as maximizing catch. The result is to disregard fish habitat boundaries and anthropogenic influences from the catchment that influence fish production. Overexploitation and environmental degradation disrupt sustainable socioeconomic benefits from the fisheries, create uncertainty among investors, but leave some managers calling for more information with the expectation that the fisheries will recover with time. Open access to the fisheries and full control of fishing effort remain challenges for managers. Exotic species introductions and fish farming can increase production, but such interventions require firm commitment to sound ecological principles and strict enforcement of recommended conservation and co‐management measures in capture fisheries. The general tendency to downplay fishing effort issues, other ecosystem values and functions or rely on temperate fisheries models until a new cycle of overexploitation emerges, characterizes many management patterns in inland fisheries. Aquaculture is not an option to challenges in capture fisheries management. Aquaculture should be developed to increase fish production but even this practice may have negative environmental impacts depending on practice and scale. Decades of information on Lake Victoria fisheries trends and aquaculture development did not stop the collapse of native fisheries. The successfully introduced Nile perch (Lates niloticus) has shown signs of overexploitation and aquaculture has again been considered as the option. By reviewing significant trends associated with Nile perch and its feasibility in aquaculture this paper uses Lake Victoria to illustrate ‘special interest management’ targeting selected species of fish rather than the fisheries.     

Concepts and issues in marine ecosystem management

Ecosystem management means different things to different people, but the underlying concept is similar to that of the long-standing ethic of conservation. Current interest in marine ecosystem management stems from concerns about overexploitation of world fisheries and the perceived need for broader perspectives in fisheries management. A central scientific question is whether the effects of harvesting (top down) or changes in the physical environment (bottom up) are responsible for major changes in abundance.Historically, ecology, fisheries biology, oceanography, fisheries management and the fishing industry have gone somewhat separate ways. Since the 1980s, increasing attention has been given to multispecies aspects of fisheries, the linkages between oceanography and fish abundance and more holistic approaches to fisheries management.Sorting out the causes and effects of fluctuations in fish abundance is complicated by the lack of reliability of fisheries statistics. Discards, dishonesty and the inherent logistic difficulties of collecting statistics all combine to confuse interpretation. The overcapacity of fishing fleets and their unrestricted use are widely recognized as a contributing cause to overfishing and declines in fish stocks in many parts of the world.Ecosystem management, as shorthand for more holistic approaches to resource management, is, from a fisheries management perspective, centred on multispecies interactions in the context of a variable physical and chemical environment. Broader perspectives include social, economic and political elements which are best considered pragmatically as a part of the context of fisheries management.Objectives in marine ecosystem management are varied. From a biological perspective, an underlying principle of management is commonly assumed to be a sustained yield of products for human consumption. Whether that should be taken to mean that the yield should always be of the same products is less certain. Fishing commonly changes the relative abundance of species of fishes. Thus, a biological objective should specify the species mix that is desired.Concern for the maintenance of global diversity has generated a substantial literature on threatened and endangered species. In general, it has not been considered likely that marine fish species could be rendered extinct and greatest attention has been given to marine mammals, sea birds and sea turtles. The provision of marine parks and sanctuary areas are obvious first steps in providing a measure of protection, at least for the less widely ranging species.Related to the current concepts of ecosystem management are expressions such as ecosystem health and ecosystem integrity which are given a wide range of different meanings, none of which are readily translated into operational language for resource management. These and similar expressions are best assessed as rhetorical devices. The essential components of ecosystem management are sustainable yield, maintenance of biodiversity and protection from the effects of pollution and habitat degradation.Theory for marine ecosystem management has a long history in fisheries and ecological literature. Ecological models such as Lotka-Volterra equations, ECOPATH, trophic cascades and chaos theory do not give practical guidance for management. Fleet interaction and multispecies virtual population analysis models hold more promise for fisheries managers.Alaska provides particular opportunities for developing new concepts in fisheries management. Statistics of catch are good, stock assessments are at the state-of-the-art level and management has been prudent. Debate is active on the causes of substantial changes in abundance of many species including marine mammals, because substantial changes in the fisheries have been accompanied by major changes in oceanographic conditions.As elsewhere, the resultant changes may be a consequence of top-down and bottom-up effects. The bottom part is beyond human control, and ecosystem management is centred on managing the top-down or fisheries component in the context of special measures of protection for particular species.Whether that is a realistic goal depends in part on how much special protection is to be afforded to which species. Marine mammals, for example, are given high priority for special protection, but like fisheries they too may have significant roles in shaping the structure of marine ecosystems. Eventually, ecosystem management must come to grips with the question of how much protection of particular species is desirable in achieving optimal use of living marine resources.     

A bright spot analysis of inland recreational fisheries in the face of climate change: learning about adaptation from small successes

Inland recreational fisheries have social, economic, and ecological importance worldwide but these fisheries are increasingly challenged by the diverse effects of climate change. Coupled with other anthropogenic stressors, climate change has contributed to declines in freshwater biodiversity of greater severity than those observed across marine or terrestrial taxa. At a macro level, inland fisheries are experiencing declines. There are, however, a number of success stories, or ‘bright spots,’ in inland recreational fisheries management, where innovative approaches are leading to increases in social and ecological well-being in the face of climate change. Cases such as these are important sources of inspiration and learning about adaptation to climate and environmental change. In this article, we analyze 11 examples of such ‘bright spots’ drawn from multiple jurisdictions around the world from which we extracted lessons that might apply to fisheries management challenges beyond the region and context of each case. Collectively, these bright spots highlight adaptive initiatives that allow for recreational fisheries management to mitigate to stressors associated with current and future climate change. Examples identified include community-based restoration projects, collaborative and adaptive approaches to short-term fisheries closures, transdisciplinary large-scale conservation projects, and conservation-minded efforts by individuals and communities. By highlighting examples of ‘small wins’ within inland recreational fisheries management, this review contributes to the idea that a ‘positive future’ for inland recreational fisheries in the face of climate change is possible and highlights potential strategies to adapt to current and future climate scenarios.

     

A classification of fishery management problems to aid in the analysis and proper formulation of management problems

Abstract

One of the most important reasons for regulating fisheries is the misallocation of resources caused by common property. Perhaps one explanation for the disagreement about what constitutes proper fisheries management is the fact that no distinction has been made between the common property problem that is somewhat unique to fisheries,’ and others, such as monopoly, monopsony, manpower training, etc., that are common to most other industries as well. It is here proposed that fisheries management be broken down, at least “conceptually, into common property management and special problem management. In this way the interrelationships between the two can be highlighted and at the same time special problem management can be viewed against the common background of the entire economy.     

Ecological advice for the global fisher crisis

Fisheries science was the precursor of population ecology and continues to contribute important theoretical advances. Despite this, fishery scientists have a poor record for applying their insights to real-world fisheries management. Is there a gulf between theory and application or does the high variability inherent in fish populations and complexity of multispecies fisheries demand a different approach to management? Perhaps the solution to the world fisheries crisis is obvious after all?     

Application of traditional ecological knowledge in the management and sustainability of fisheries in East Africa: a long-neglected strategy?

Management and sustainability of fisheries has been guided by theories and models derived from modern ecological science. Traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) has been ignored in all spheres of decision-making for management and sustainability of fisheries in East Africa. TEK guided African communities in the way they associated and interacted with the natural environment around them. Spiritual rituals, religious practices, social taboos and sacred animal totems guided the peoples on how and when to utilize the available natural resources. In the advent of modern scientific knowledge, the African traditional knowledge quickly faded away and is generally seen as irrelevant. Today the potential of TEK in the management and sustainability of fisheries in East Africa has not been realized and its status and future is unknown. TEK should be complementary to modern scientific knowledge in the management and sustainability of fisheries. This paper therefore focuses on the potential application of TEK in the management and sustainability of fisheries in East Africa and the issues that impede its application.     

Understanding and managing enhancements: why fisheries scientists should care

Fisheries enhancements are a set of management approaches involving the use of aquaculture technologies to enhance or restore fisheries in natural ecosystems. Enhancements are widely used in inland and coastal fisheries, but have received limited attention from fisheries scientists. This paper sets out 10 reasons why fisheries scientists should care about understanding and managing enhancements. (1) Enhancements happen, driven mostly by resource users and managers rather than scientists. (2) Enhancements create complex fisheries systems that encompass and integrate everything fisheries stakeholders can practically manage. (3) Enhancements emerge in fisheries where the scope for technical and governance control is high, and they synergistically reinforce both. (4) Successful enhancements expand management options and achievable outcomes. (5) Many enhancements fail or do ecological harm but persist regardless. (6) Effective science engagement is crucial to developing beneficial enhancements and preventing harmful ones. (7) Good scientific guidance is available to aid development or reform of enhancements but is not widely applied. (8) Enhancement research advances, integrates and unifies the fisheries sciences. (9) Enhancements provide unique opportunities for learning about natural fish populations and fisheries. (10) Needs, opportunities and incentives for enhancements are bound to increase.     

Managing the fisheries by social engineering: a re-evaluation of the methods of stock assessment

This paper criticises the management of the world's fisheries that are based upon the use of 'positive' predictions derived from fisheries models, an instrumentalist approach which is illustrated by the practical application of Graham-Schaefer models constructed according to the verificationist's view of science. Instrumentalism is attractive for stock assessment because it appears to meet the need to overcome barriers within fisheries science to the deduction of specific predictions from universal laws. Through the construction of empirical models, existential predictions are produced which ape the specific predictions of the physical sciences and are of no more value in the management of the world's fisheries than the magic spells of witch doctors. To be contrasted with instrumentalism's prophetic use of 'positive' predictions, Karl Popper advocated a realist approach in which theoretical models help us gain factual information about the real-world in the form of what cannot be achieved : 'negative' explanatory predictions produced by models constructed according to the falsificationist's view of science and illustrated by the practical application of theoretical Gordon-Schaefer fisheries models.
The absence within fisheries stock assessment of a suitable alternative to instrumentalism comprises a widespread methodological lacuna. It is proposed that Popper's technological social science, designed to solve problems of social tradition of which overfishing is an example, would fill this lacuna. This technology would employ the services of a social engineer, a modern fisheries manager , who would use the pre-scientific method of trial and error and the negative guidance of bold pattern predictions to re-evaluate the institutions of fisheries management.     

Stock assessment in inland fisheries: a foundation for sustainable use and conservation

Fisheries stock assessments are essential for science-based fisheries management. Inland fisheries pose challenges, but also provide opportunities for biological assessments that differ from those encountered in large marine fisheries for which many of our assessment methods have been developed. These include the number and diversity of fisheries, high levels of ecological and environmental variation, and relative lack of institutional capacity for assessment. In addition, anthropogenic impacts on habitats, widespread presence of non-native species and the frequent use of enhancement and restoration measures such as stocking affect stock dynamics. This paper outlines various stock assessment and data collection approaches that can be adapted to a wide range of different inland fisheries and management challenges. Although this paper identifies challenges in assessment, it focuses on solutions that are practical, scalable and transferrable. A path forward is suggested in which biological assessment generates some of the critical information needed by fisheries managers to make effective decisions that benefit the resource and stakeholders.     

An Integrated Approach Is Needed for Ecosystem Based Fisheries Management: Insights from Ecosystem-Level Management Strategy Evaluation

An ecosystem approach is widely seen as a desirable goal for fisheries management but there is little consensus on what strategies or measures are needed to achieve it. Management strategy evaluation (MSE) is a tool that has been widely used to develop and test single species fisheries management strategies and is now being extended to support ecosystem based fisheries management (EBFM). We describe the application of MSE to investigate alternative strategies for achieving EBFM goals for a complex multispecies fishery in southeastern Australia. The study was undertaken as part of a stakeholder driven process to review and improve the ecological, economic and social performance of the fishery. An integrated management strategy, involving combinations of measures including quotas, gear controls and spatial management, performed best against a wide range of objectives and this strategy was subsequently adopted in the fishery, leading to marked improvements in performance. Although particular to one fishery, the conclusion that an integrated package of measures outperforms single focus measures we argue is likely to apply widely in fisheries that aim to achieve EBFM goals.     

Fishery management in Japan

There are few legal marine protected areas in Japan rather than fishing-ban areas. Fishers did not seek legal fishing-ban areas but they did establish fishing-ban areas by autonomous bases. We briefly introduce the institutional history and features of Japanese coastal fishery management, including the past decade’s major legislative developments. Japan still has a decentralized co-management system involving fishers and the government, and ca. 98% of Japanese fishers are artisanal. There are several successful cases of coastal fisheries management in Japan. However, offshore industrial fisheries have problems in Japan. We compare coastal fisheries co-management between Japan and Chile. We finally discuss the possibility of improvement for Japanese fisheries.