Metabolic profiling of ethephon-treated sweet cherry (Prunus avium L.)

Increasing costs and decreasing labor availability for sweet cherry harvest in Washington State, USA, has reinvigorated commercial and research interest of mechanized harvest. Ethephon (2-chloroethyl phosphonic acid) can be used to improve fruit abscission for mechanical harvest. Our previous work shows that 3.5 l ha⁻¹ ethephon enhances red color and reduces firmness of the cultivar ‘Bing’. In the current study, we used metabolic profiling of cultivars ‘Bing’, Chelan’, and ‘Skeena’ fruit meso and exocarp tissue to better understand underlying quality-related metabolism associated with ethephon application. Trees were treated using air-blast sprayer 13–14 days prior to harvest and fruit samples were harvested every 7–10 days starting at least 17 days prior to commercial harvest. Nearly 200 identified and partially characterized metabolites from mesocarp and exocarp tissue were characterized and evaluated. Principal component analysis models revealed changes in the metabolome associated with both natural ripening and ethephon-induced changes, including associations to key color, acid, and sugar components, such as cyanidin 3-glucoside, malic acid and sugar metabolism.     

Presence of functional TLR2 and TLR4 on human adipocytes

In addition to the well-known role of adipose tissue in energy metabolism, it has recently been demonstrated that this tissue can secrete a large array of molecules, including inflammatory cytokines. Furthermore, recent studies suggest that adipose cells can behave as immune cells. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the presence of the two most prominent ‘pattern recognition receptors’ for bacterial and fungal cell wall components, TLR2 and TLR4 on human adipose cells, as well as to assess their functionality. We demonstrated that TLR2 and TLR4 were expressed at relatively high levels (compared to a monocyte cell line) on the surface of human adipose cells. Stimulation of human adipocytes with lipopolysaccharide (LPS), or with lipoteichoic acid (LTA), two specific ligands of TLR4 and TLR2, respectively, induced a strong increase in TNFα production. The specificity of the response was demonstrated by the use of anti-TLR4 and anti-TLR2 blocking antibodies, which were able to decrease LPS- or LTA-induced TNFα secretion. Thus, it is clear that these receptors are functional in human adipocytes. This study adds weight to the argument that human fat tissue plays a potential role in innate immunity. Sandrine Bés-Houtmann, Régis Roche, Christian Lefebvre d’Hellencourt and Maya Cesari have contributed equally to this work.     

Effect of mandur bhasma on lipolytic activities of liver,kidney and adipose tissue of albino rat during CCl4 induced hepatic injury

‘Mandur bhasma’, an ayurvedic preparation of iron is used in traditional medicine against hepatitis. In the present study the hepatoprotective property of this drug was tested in albino rats during CC1₄ induced hepatic injury. The effect of mandur bhasma on the activities of the lipolytic enzymes of rat liver, kidney and adipose tissue were studied during hepatitis induced by CCl₄. The activities of acid lipase, alkaline lipase, lipoprotein lipase and hormone sensitive lipase exhibited significant alterations during CCl₄ induced hepatic injury, indicating a role for these enzymes in the mobilization of fat from adipose tissue and accumulation of fat in liver and kidney. Simultaneous treatment with mandur bhasma prevented the paraffin mediated and CC1₄ mediated changes in the enzyme activities. These results suggest the hepatoprotective role of mandur bhasma during CCl₄ induced hepatic injury.     

Effects of NaCl stress on germination, antioxidant responses, and proline content in two rice cultivars

We investigated the physiological and biochemical bases for salt tolerance in two rice (Oryza sativa L.) cultivars — relatively salt-tolerant ‘Dongjin’ and salt-sensitive ‘Kumnam’. Salinized hydroponic cultures were studied at the germination and seedling stages. NaCI inhibited germination more severely in ‘Kumnam’ than in ‘Dongjin’. Increasing the salt concentration also deterred growth to a larger extent in the former. Moreover, the leaves of ‘Kumnam’ exhibited greater increases in lipid peroxidation and Na⁺ accumulation than those of ‘Dongjin’ under stress. The activities of constitutive and salt-induced superoxide dismutase (SOD, EC 1.15.1.1) and ascorbate peroxidase (AP, EC 1.11.1.11) were also higher in ‘Kumnam’, while only catalase (CAT, EC 1.11.1.6) activity was slightly higher in stressed plants of ‘Dongjin’. The positive correlation between leaf proline levels and NaCI concentration was more evident in ‘Kumnam’. However, ‘Dongjin’ seeds, which had higher germinability in the presence of NaCI, also contained more proline. These results suggest that the higher salt tolerance in ‘Dongjin’ seedlings could be ascribed to their lower NaCI accumulations in the leaves. This presumably is due to reductions in the uptake or transport rates of saline ions to the shoots from the roots. Finally, we believe that the higher germination rate by ‘Dongjin’ is caused by its higher seed proline content.     

Reorganization of the nuclear lamina and cytoskeleton in adipogenesis

A thorough understanding of fat cell biology is necessary to counter the epidemic of obesity. Although molecular pathways governing adipogenesis are well delineated, the structure of the nuclear lamina and nuclear-cytoskeleton junction in this process are not. The identification of the ‘linker of nucleus and cytoskeleton’ (LINC) complex made us consider a role for the nuclear lamina in adipose conversion. We herein focused on the structure of the nuclear lamina and its coupling to the vimentin network, which forms a cage-like structure surrounding individual lipid droplets in mature adipocytes. Analysis of a mouse and human model system for fat cell differentiation showed fragmentation of the nuclear lamina and subsequent loss of lamins A, C, B1 and emerin at the nuclear rim, which coincides with reorganization of the nesprin-3/plectin/vimentin complex into a network lining lipid droplets. Upon 18 days of fat cell differentiation, the fraction of adipocytes expressing lamins A, C and B1 at the nuclear rim increased, though overall lamin A/C protein levels were low. Lamin B2 remained at the nuclear rim throughout fat cell differentiation. Light and electron microscopy of a subcutaneous adipose tissue specimen showed striking indentations of the nucleus by lipid droplets, suggestive for an increased plasticity of the nucleus due to profound reorganization of the cellular infrastructure. This dynamic reorganization of the nuclear lamina in adipogenesis is an important finding that may open up new venues for research in and treatment of obesity and nuclear lamina-associated lipodystrophy.     

A Viscoelastic Traction Layer Model of Muco-Ciliary Transport

A new mathematical model of the transport of mucus and periciliary liquid (PCL) in the airways by cilia is presented. Mucus is represented by a linearly viscoelastic fluid, the mat of cilia is modelled as an ‘active porous medium.’ The propulsive effect of the cilia is modelled by a time-dependent force acting in a shear-thinned ‘traction layer’ between the mucus and the PCL. The effects of surface and interface tension are modelled by constraining the mucus free surface and mucus–PCL interface to be flat. It is assumed that the epithelium is impermeable to fluid. Using Fourier series, the system is converted into ODEs and solved numerically. We calculate values for mean mucus speed close to those observed by Matsui et~al. [{J. Clin. Invest.}, 102(6):1125–1131, 1998], (∽40 μms^-1). We obtain more detail regarding the dynamics of the flow and the nonlinear relationships between physical parameters in healthy and diseased states than in previously published models. Pressure gradients in the PCL caused by interface and surface tension are vital to ensuring efficient transport of mucus, and the role of the mucus–PCL interface appears to be to support such pressure gradients, ensuring efficient transport. Mean transport of PCL is found to be very small, consistent with previous analyses, providing insight into theories regarding the normal tonicity of PCL. An erratum to this article can be found at     

Genetic control theory of developmental events

An earlier theory of cell differentiation and morphogenesis (Wassermann, 1972, 1973, 1978) is combined with the genetic control model of Davidson and Britten (e.g. 1979). The resulting new theory suggests how, bysystematic process algorithms, specifically enumerated combinations of batteries of structural genes can become switched on in particularly enumerated cells, via battery-specific enumerable regulator genes. The systematization is idealized. Up to a certain stage of development in each mitotically arising cell a unique cell-specific combination of structural genes called ‘marker genes’ is active. Marker genes are assumed to code for cell-specifying marker proteins (CSMPs) which permit cells carrying related markers to recognize each other, thus permitting specific cell sorting.Batteries of marker genes could ensure great developmental precision and can safeguard—via redundancies of CSMP types—against accidental loss or detrimental mutational modification of CSMPs or marker genes, respectively. This paper is much concerned with cell lineage in relation to ‘microdifferentiation’, where ‘microdifferentiation’ of a cell refers to a cell's active marker genes and its syntheses of CSMPs. A drastic distinction is made between ‘microdifferentiation’ and ‘gross’ differentiation of a cell, where the same ‘gross’ differentiation may be shared by a large number of cells that could each be uniquely ‘microdifferentiated’. Typical ‘gross’ differentiation could manifest itself in tissue specificity, whereas, up to certain stages of development, all cells of the same gross differentiation type (say tissue specificity) could each be uniquely ‘microdifferentiated’. The theory also assumes that at certain stages of the developmental process some (or in some organisms all) of the previously uniquely specified cells could give rise to small (or occasionally large) clones of equispecified cells, some of which might form clusters that represent complete ‘morphogenetic fields’ Tentative implementation mechanisms are proposed which suggest how the theory could operate in molecular biological terms. In particular, CSMPs could endow cell surface membranes with a highly specific protein network, and an associated equally specific cell surface coat. It is suggested how these highly specified cell surface coats and other systems could provide an ‘extracellular guidance network’ which could help to direct cells to attain energetically optimal locations relative to each other based on the matching of their surface specificities. In numerous experimental situations, where normally present optimal matching of cells is excluded, ‘alternative matching’ based on experiment-specific suboptimal matching could explain many data, notably in experimental development neurobiology (Wassermann, 1978).     

Ambulatory Assessment of Skin Conductivity During First Thesis Presentation: Lower Self-Confidence Predicts Prolonged Stress Response

In this field study self-confidence was tested to predict the course of galvanic electrodermal stress response prior, during and after public speaking. Ten graduate students initially rated their self-confidence and afterwards presented their thesis proposals orally in a 10-min presentation to their supervisor and peers. Galvanic skin response level was measured throughout and analysed for 10 min prior to, during, and 10 min after the presentation. Two major galvanic electrodermal stress response types were observed. Five students showed a ‘healthy response’, i.e. an anticipatory increase in electrodermal conductance, followed by a decrease after termination of the presentation. The other five students showed a steady increase of skin conductance during and after their presentation (‘prolonged response’). In line with the allostatic load model the ‘prolonged response’ group reported significantly lower self-confidence before presentation than the ‘healthy response’ group (p < 0.01). Self-confidence is a resource in novices facing an unfamiliar stressor.     

Question 7: Modelling Minimal ‘Lipid-Peptide’ Cells

This contribution is aimed to give support to ‘bottom-up’ approaches to the minimal or early cell research project. Even if, from this perspective, the most simple living cell still seems very far away, the analysis of less complex, infrabiological cellular systems (some of which could be relatively soon implemented in the lab) probably holds the key, or one of the fundamental keys, to the problem of origins of life. On these lines, we propose a simulation model to study the transition from proto-metabolic ‘lipid’ cells to ‘lipid-peptide’ cells, as a critical step in which self-reproducing vesicles could develop into more functionalized supramolecular systems Presented at: International School of Complexity – 4th Course: Basic Questions on the Origins of Life; “Ettore Majorana” Foundation and Centre for Scientific Culture, Erice, Italy, 1–6 October 2006.     

Simple rules result in the adaptive turning of food items to reduce drag during cooperative food transport in the ant <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pheidole oxyops</Emphasis>

Insect workers cooperate to carry out a variety of tasks. One example is cooperative transport of food items by two or more ant workers, which is important in foraging in many species. We predicted that natural selection would result in strategies that improve the performance of this task and tested this in Pheidole oxyops, a Neotropical ant in which ca. 70% of the biomass of dead insects brought back to the nest is transported cooperatively. We specifically tested the hypothesis that groups would re-orient food items to reduce drag, given that legs, wings, and other projections should affect the ease of dragging prey in different orientations. By presenting ants with artificial food items and dead cockroaches, both of which required approximately twice as much force to drag backwards as forwards, and a control which was equally easy to move in both orientations, we showed that natural groups of 3–20 food-transporting ants usually turned items that were facing backwards (72 and 83% of trials for artificial food items or cockroaches, respectively), the orientation requiring greater force, but not items facing forwards (10 and 12% of trials, respectively). Turning usually involved a single ‘steering’ ant. The key role of the ‘steering’ ant was shown by removing either the current steering ant or a randomly chosen ‘non-steering’ ant during turning. In 100% of the trials in which the steering ant was removed, turning stopped until another ant took its place. Conversely, turning stopped in only 17% of trials in which a ‘non-steering’ ant was removed. Turning is an emergent property of the system and may not have been directly selected for. Rather, turning seems to occur through a combination of pre-existing retrieval behaviour and the underlying physics of large loads. Points where the food item catches the ground can act as a fulcrum or pivot around which the item can rotate. Ants furthest from the fulcrum have more leverage and so are more likely to play a key role in turning. A simple rule relevant to individual transport of food items such as “grasp the food item and move towards the nest”, when used in the context of cooperative transport, has allowed the ants to solve a seemingly complicated problem requiring coordination.     

Spectral properties of human cognition and skill

 Many interactive human skills are based on real-time error detection and correction. Here we investigate the spectral properties of such skills, focusing on a synchronization task. A simple autoregressive error correction model, based on separate ‘motor’ and ‘cognitive’ sources, provides an excellent fit to experimental spectral data. The model can also apply to recurrent processes not based on error correction, allowing commentary on previous claims of 1/ f-type noise in human cognition. A comparison of expert and non-expert subjects suggests that performance skill is not only based on reduced variance and bias, but also on the construction of richer mental models of error correction. Received: 4 October 1995 / Accepted in revised form: 25 February 1997     

Influence of capsaicin,curcumin and ferulic acid in rats fed high fat diets

Three compounds capsaicin, curcumin and ferulic acid showing hypolipidemic activity have been tested in adult Wistar rats fed high fat diets. Capsaicin (0.20 mg%) fed to female rats along with a 30% saturated fat diet lowered the rate of weight gain, liver and serum triglycerides. In male rats it lowered only the liver and serum total and very low density and low density lipoprotein triglycerides whether fed continuously for 13 or 8 weeks after interchanging the control and test diets from the 5th week onwards. Capsaicin fed to female rats in 30% mixed fat diet increased the rate of weight gain, lowered liver and serum triglycerides, lowered adipose tissue lipoprotein lipase, elevated the hormone sensitive lipase and serum free fatty acids. Capsaicin in 30% saturated fat diet lowered both the enzyme activities to a much lesser extent. Curcumin and ferulic acid (both at 25 mg%) in 30% saturated fat diet tended to lower the rate of weight gain, liver total lipids and serum triglycerides. It is of significance that a common dietary compound ‘capsaicin’ in the range of human intake triggers lipid lowering action in rats fed high fat diets. This paper was presented at the 55th Annual Meeting of the Society of Biological Chemists (India) held at Trivandrum during December 15–17th, 1986.     

‘Placebos’ and the logic of placebo comparison

Robin Nunn has argued that we should stop using the terms ‘placebo’ and ‘placebo effect’. I argue in support of Nunn’s position by considering the logic of why we perform placebo comparisons. Like all comparisons, placebo comparison is just a case of comparing one thing with another, but it is a mistake, I argue, to think of placebo comparison as a case where something is compared to ‘a placebo’. Rather, placebo comparison should be understood as a situation which sets-up the treatment and control groups in a particular way; not as a case involving objects or procedures called ‘placebos’ employed in order to control for ‘placebo effects’.     

Photosynthesis parameters and activities of enzymes of oxidative stress in two young ‘Chemlali’ and ‘Chetoui’ olive trees under water deficit

The effects of water deficit on photochemical parameters and activities of superoxide dismutase, catalase, ascorbate peroxidase and glutathione reductase were investigated in two olive cultivars differing in drought tolerance — ‘Chemlali’ and ‘Chetoui’. After 30 days without irrigation, leaf water potential fell to −5.5 MPa that was accompanied by a marked decrease in net photosynthesis in ‘Chetoui’ olive cultivar. Maximal efficiency of PSII photochemistry (F_v/F_m) decreased slightly in ‘Chemlali’ (28 %) and substantially in ‘Chétoui’ (47 %). Both cultivars showed a similar decline (about 25 %) in the photochemical quenching coefficient, but only the drought-sensitive olive cultivar exhibited an enhancement (31 %) of non-photochemical fluorescence quenching under water deficit conditions. The quantum yield of electron transport decreased in both olive cultivars. ‘Chemlali’ showed a higher protection against oxidative stress, as judged from the lower levels of the malondialdehyde production. Catalase activity was higher in ‘Chetoui’. Glutathione reductase activity was increased similarly in both olive cultivars under water stress. Ascorbate peroxidase activity was enhanced in ‘Chemlali’ under water stress, but was unaffected in ‘Chetoui’. While, superoxide dismutase activity was inhibited in both cultivars under water stress, but higher activity was detected in ‘Chemlali’. Thus, the ability to increase ascorbate peroxidase and a higher superoxide dismutase activity might be an important attribute linked to the drought tolerance in ‘Chemlali’ olive cultivar.     

AFLP analysis of nephthytis (Syngonium podophyllum Schott) selected from somaclonal variants

This study analyzed genetic differences of 19 cultivars selected from somaclonal variants of Syngonium podophyllum Schott along with their parents as well as seven additional Syngonium species and six other aroids using amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) markers generated by 12 primer sets. Among the 19 somaclonal cultivars, ‘Pink Allusion’ was selected from ‘White Butterfly’. Tissue culture of ‘Pink Allusion’ through organogenesis resulted in the development of 13 additional cultivars. Self-pollination of ‘Pink Allusion’ obtained a cultivar, ‘Regina Red Allusion’, and tissue culture propagation of ‘Regina Red Allusion’ led to the release of five other cultivars. The 12 primer sets generated a total of 1,583 scorable fragments from all accessions, of which 1,284 were polymorphic (81.9%). The percentages of polymorphic fragments within ‘White Butterfly’ and ‘Regina Red Allusion’ groups, however, were only 1.2% and 0.4%, respectively. Jaccard's similarity coefficients among somaclonal cultivars derived from ‘White Butterfly’ and ‘Regina Red Allusion’, on average, were 0.98 and 0.99, respectively. Seven out of the 15 cultivars from the ‘White Butterfly’ group and three out of six from the ‘Regina Red Allusion’ group were clearly distinguished by AFLP analysis as unique fragments were associated with respective cultivars. The unsuccessful attempt to distinguish the remaining eight cultivars from the ‘White Butterfly’ group and three from the ‘Regina Red Allusion’ group was not attributed to experimental errors or the number of primer sets used; rather it is hypothesized to be caused by DNA methylation and/or some rare mutations. This study also calls for increased genetic diversity of cultivated Syngonium as they are largely derived from somaclonal variants.     

Callus induction and plant regeneration from broccoli (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Brassica oleracea</Emphasis> var. italica) for transformation

We evaluated the efficiency of callus induction and plantlet regeneration from hypocotyl explants of broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica). The cultivars were ‘Marathon’, ‘Greenbelt’, and ‘Shogun’. Transformation success was not affected by the presence of tobacco feeder-cell layers on the culture media. The frequency of shoot regeneration was greater from 10-d-old hypocotyls than from 14-d-old hypocotyls. Both ‘Marathon’ and ‘Greenbelt’ had higher potentials for tissue regeneration than did ‘Shogun’. We found that for transformation selection, the optimum concentration was either 50 mg/L kanamycin or 100 mg/L genetkin.     

Brown adipose tissue: from thermal physiology to bioenergetics

Brown adipose tissue is an organ in mammals specialized for the generation of heat. The tissue plays an important role in thermoregulatory heat production (nonshivering thermogenesis), and in nutritional energetics (through the process of diet-induced thermogenesis). Much of the current interest in brown adipose tissue has been catalysed by the postulate (1970’s) that a reduced capacity for thermogenesis underlies the development of obesity. Heat is generated in brown fat by a controlled uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation, a process regulated by a tissue-specific mitochondrial uncoupling protein,M _r 32–33,000. The immunological identification of uncoupling protein is now used as a biochemical criterion for distinguishing brown fat from white adipose tissue. The gene coding for uncoupling protein has been cloned in several species, and a number of factors regulating the expression of the gene, as well as the amount and activity of the protein itself, have been documented. In addition to its direct role in heat production, brown adipose tissue has some notable general metabolic properties, such as in the conversion of thyroxine to triiodothyronine. An overview of the biology of brown adipose tissue is presented in this article, with an emphasis on some recent developments.     

FGF21 mediates alcohol-induced adipose tissue lipolysis by activation of systemic release of catecholamine in mice

Alcohol consumption leads to adipose tissue lipoatrophy and mobilization of FFAs, which contributes to hepatic fat accumulation in alcoholic liver disease. This study aimed to investigate the role of fibroblast growth factor (FGF)21, a metabolic regulator, in the regulation of chronic-binge alcohol-induced adipose tissue lipolysis. FGF21 KO mice were subjected to chronic-binge alcohol exposure, and epididymal white adipose tissue lipolysis and liver steatosis were investigated. Alcohol exposure caused adipose intracellular cAMP elevation and activation of lipolytic enzymes, leading to FFA mobilization in both WT and FGF21 KO mice. However, alcohol-induced systemic elevation of catecholamine, which is known to be a major player in adipose lipolysis by binding to the β-adrenergic receptor, was markedly inhibited in KO mice. Supplementation with recombinant human FGF21 to alcohol-exposed FGF21 KO mice resulted in an increase in fat loss in parallel with an increase of circulating norepinephrine concentration. Furthermore, alcohol consumption-induced fatty liver was blunted in the KO mice, indicating an inhibition of fatty acid reverse transport from adipose to the liver in the KO mice. Taken together, our studies demonstrate that FGF21 KO mice are protected from alcohol-induced adipose tissue excess-lipolysis through a mechanism involving systemic catecholamine release.     

Life cycle assessment in green chemistry

Background, Aims and Scope Using renewable feedstock and introducing biocatalysts in the chemical industry have been suggested as the key strategies to reduce the environmental impact of chemicals. The Swedish interdisciplinary programme ‘Greenchem’, is aiming to develop these strategies. One target group of chemicals for Greenchem are wax esters which can be used in wood surface coatings for wood furniture, etc. The aim of this study was to conduct a life cycle assessment of four different wood surface coatings, two wax-based coatings and two lacquers using ultra violet light for hardening (UV lacquers). One of the two wax-based coatings is based on a renewable wax ester produced with biocatalysts from rapeseed oil, denoted ‘green wax’, while the other is based on fossil feedstock and is denoted ‘fossil wax’. The two UV lacquers consist of one ‘100% UV’ coating and one ‘water-based UV’ coating. The scope was to compare the environmental performance of the new ‘green’ coating with the three coatings which are on the market today. Methods The study has a cradle-to-grave perspective and the functional unit is ‘decoration and protection of 1 m² wood table surface for 20 years’. Extensive data collection and calculations have been performed for the two wax-based coatings, whereas mainly existing LCI data have been used to characterise the production of the two UV lacquers. Results For all impact categories studied, the ‘100% UV’ lacquer is the most environmentally benign alternative. The ‘water-based UV’ is the second best alternative for all impact categories except EP, where the ‘fossil wax’ is slightly better. For GWP the ‘fossil wax’ has the highest contribution followed by the ‘green wax’. For AP and EP it is the ‘green wax’ that makes the highest environmental impact due to the contribution from the cultivation of the rapeseed and the production of the rapeseed oil. For POCP the ‘fossil wax’ makes the highest contribution, slightly higher than the contribution from the ‘green wax’. Also the energy requirements for the ‘100% UV’ lacquer is much lower than for the other coatings. The results from the toxicological evaluation conducted in this study, which was restricted to include only the UV lacquers, are inconclusive, giving different results depending on the model chosen, EDIP97 or USES. Discussion The result in this study shows that the environmental benefits of using revewable feedstock and processes based on biocatalysis in the production of wax esters used in wood surface coatings are rather limited. This is due to the high environmental impact from other steps in the life cycle of the coating. Conclusions Overall the ‘100% UV’ lacquer seems to be the best alternative from an environmental point of view. This study shows that the hot spots of the life cycle of the coatings are the production of the ingredients, but also the application and drying of the coatings. The toxicity assessment shows the need for the development of a new model, a model which finds common ground in order to overcome the current situation of diverging results of toxicity assessments. The results in this study also point to the importance of investigating the environmental performance of a product based on fossil or renewable feedstock from a life cycle perspective. Recommendations and Perspectives The results in this study show that an efficient way to improve the wood coating industry environmentally is to increase the utilization of UV lacquers that are 100% UV-based. These coatings can also be even further improved by introducing biocatalytic processes and producing epoxides and diacrylates from renewable raw material instead of the fossil-based ones produced with conventional chemical methods in use today. In doing this, however, choosing a vegetable oil with good environmental performance is important. An alternative application of the ‘green wax’ analysed in this study may be as an ingredient in health care products, for example, which may result in greater environmental benefits than when the wax is used inwood coating products. The results in this study illustrate the importance of investigating the environmental performance of a product from cradle-to-grave perspective and not consider it ‘green’ because it is based on renewable resources.