中国生物多样性保护的变革性转变及路径

全球正在经历第六次物种大灭绝。为了应对生物多样性丧失速率日益加快的严峻挑战, 《生物多样性公约》第十届缔约方大会通过了《生物多样性战略计划》(2011-2020年)及20项爱知生物多样性目标。然而, 2019年IPBES全球评估报告表明, 大部分爱知目标可能无法在2020年实现, 因此, 自然保护需要变革性转变。中国虽然在生物多样性保护方面取得了巨大成就, 提出了系统完整的生态文明制度及建立“以国家公园为主体的自然保护地体系”的目标, 并通过绿盾行动和环保督察提升了生物多样性保护的重要性, 陆地自然保护地覆盖率也已达到18%, 但仍未有效遏制生物多样性下降的趋势, 物种濒危程度持续加剧。尽管生态文明一系列改革已经做出了变革性转变, 中央层面大力推行生物多样性“主流化”的相关政策, 通过机构改革初步解决了自然保护地“九龙治水”的问题, 在国土空间规划和生态保护红线划定中强调了生物多样性保护的重要性, 但是, 生物多样性保护仍然缺乏系统性的解决策略, 需要在不同层面进一步落实“主流化”, 建立完整的法律体系和统一规范高效的保护机制, 保障保护资金, 明确生物多样性在生产、生活空间中的地位, 打通自然保护成果与经济利益的转化渠道。因此, 中国的生物多样性保护应当借助生态文明建设的历史性机遇, 在保护意识、空间布局和保护行动3个方面充分实现变革性的转变, 借助五位一体总体布局, 采用系统化的解决方法, 进一步整合法律、行政、市场、技术和社会等五方面力量, 提出具体的实现路径, 实现保护意识主流化、保护利用统筹化和保护行动全民化等三方面变革性的转变, 形成高效一体化的机制, 以实现“人与自然和谐相处”的生物多样性保护理想状态。     

National biodiversity risk assessment: a composite multivariate and index approach

Due to the shortage of financial resources for international conservation assistance, the setting of priorities for this assistance is an important issue. A national biodiversity risk assessment index (NABRAI) is constructed to quantify national conservation performances and identify nation states of critical conservation concern. The index, which contains measures of biodiversity stock, flow and response measures, attempts to overcome several weaknesses present in other models used to prioritize nations for conservation assistance. Multivariate analyses of the index as well as economic and biodiversity resources reveal significant positive correlations between the NABRAI values and population density as well as land area exposed to high disturbance intensity. The combination of the multivariate analyses and the interpretation of NABRAI values allows for prioritization of biodiversity risk among the global community and can thus serve as an indicator of current priorities for policy makers. The present study also suggests two methods to incorporate a better understanding of biodiversity risk in models of conservation priorities; by including a wider range of variables and by developing a theoretical foundation for the relationship between the categories of variables used in the model.     

Is maximizing protection the same as minimizing loss? Efficiency and retention as alternative measures of the effectiveness of proposed reserves

We used two measures to compare the effectiveness of 52 conservation criteria in achieving conservation targets for forest types. The first measure was efficiency. Although widely used, efficiency assumes no loss or reduction of biodiversity features before conservation is implemented. This is invalid in many situations. Often, it is more realistic to assume gradual implementation accompanied by incremental, predictable reduction and loss of biodiversity features. We simulated future landscapes resulting from the annual interplay of loss and conservation of forest types. We then based our second measure, retention, on how well criteria scheduled conservation action to prevent targets being compromised. The simulations partly support predictions about the best criteria for scheduling implementation with continuing biodiversity loss. Retention was weakly related or unrelated to efficiency across 52 criteria. Although retention values were sensitive to changes in targets and rates of conservation and forest loss, one criterion consistently produced highest retention values.     

Biodiversity estimation of the western region of Ghana using arthropod mean morphospecies abundance

There is a global consensus on the fact that human activities are increasingly eroding biodiversity, especially in many ecologically rich regions of the world. Quantifying these biodiversity losses over large administrative areas, along with the impacts of the respective driving factors is necessary for biodiversity conservation. In this study, we used readily available spatial data on infrastructure, fragmentation, and land use together with ecological data on terrestrial arthropods (as species surrogate) to carry out spatial assessment and mapping of biodiversity values in the Western Region of Ghana, a highly degraded part of the West African biodiversity hotspot. Compared with its pristine condition, our results show that the region has a remaining mean species abundance (MSA) of approximately 52%, indicating a loss of 48% due to anthropogenic activities (mainly cocoa and oil palm farming). Areas of national protection (i.e. national parks and forest reserves) did not prove to have much promise for biodiversity conservation in the region since many were found to have low MSA values. Moreover, according to our arthropod data, no areas of high MSA values were found outside protected areas. However, because the thick, continuous, structurally complex canopies of these orchards responsible for the biodiversity loss provide natural connectivity between protected reserves, diversification of understory vegetation and a reduction in the use of agrochemicals particularly weedicides and pesticides may yield significant conservation outcomes.     

三江平原湿地生态系统生物多样性保护价值

生物多样性保护是三江平原湿地生态系统提供的一项重要的生态服务功能,具有重要的经济价值。应用M.Hoel和T.Sterner提出的经济模型,分析了贴现率和边际价格变化综合影响下的三江平原湿地生态系统生物多样性保护价值变化过程,研究了收入边际效用弹性和替代弹性对贴现率和边际价格变化综合效应的影响,并通过对比传统贴现方法揭示了三江平原湿地生态系统生物多样性保护所蕴含的巨大经济价值。研究结果表明,在贴现率和边际价格变化的综合影响下,三江平原湿地生态系统生物多样性保护价值曲线呈现出先增长再下降的变化趋势,总经济价值为人均19438.9元;收入边际效用弹性和替代弹性的取值对价值评估结果的影响较大,不同参数条件下的价值评估结果将最终作用于湿地生态系统保护相关决策的制定;价值评估结果同样证明了在保持经济较快速度发展的同时提高三江平原湿地生态系统生物多样性保护功能的恢复速率对于促进地区经济协调发展和提高社会福祉状况具有重要的现实意义。     

基于焦点物种的北京市生物保护安全格局规划

快速城市化进程中,城市及周边地区生物栖息地的丧失和破碎化对生物多样性保护构成严重威胁。如何在景观尺度上判别对于生物保护具有重要意义的栖息地及其空间格局成为了重要问题。选取快速城市化的典型地区——北京市作为研究对象,将焦点物种和景观安全格局方法相结合,对北京市生物保护安全格局进行判别和规划。根据焦点物种的定义和选取标准,将在栖息地类型、生物学特征等各方面具有代表性的大白鹭(Casmerodius albus)、绿头鸭(Anas platyrhynchos)、环颈雉(Phasianus colchicus)选作北京市的焦点物种,应用最小阻力模型和GIS空间分析技术,对焦点物种的栖息地适宜性进行分析,并建立物种运动的等阻力面,根据阻力面的空间特征对北京市生物保护安全格局进行规划。结果显示:规划后的安全格局的斑块数量、分离度、邻近距离显著下降,平均斑块面积和最大斑块指数显著上升;该格局用约60%的土地,保护了北京市主要生境类型及关键性空间格局,可有效缓解栖息地丧失和破碎化的问题,从而达到保护整体生物多样性的目的。这一研究方法和成果可为北京市生物多样性保护和城乡生态建设提供决策依据,也对同类研究具有借鉴价值。     

To which extent is the interdisciplinary evaluation approach of the CBD reflected in European and international biodiversity-related regulations?

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is a major step forward towards an integrated approach of biodiversity and conservation to sustainable development. The CBD mentions in its preamble the intrinsic value of biological diversity and the ecological, genetic, social, economic, scientific, educational, cultural, recreational and aesthetic values of biological diversity and its components. However, there are still grave implementation deficits in practise on global, European, and national level. Therefore, the following research analyses the extend to which the different values mentioned in the preamble of the CBD are already included into a selection of European and international regulations related to biodiversity and to which extent a condensed amount of the same criteria is applied for comprehensive, transparent, and comparable evaluations. The study reveals that the established European and international biodiversity-related regulations do not sufficiently consider the different values of biodiversity, but also do not relate them to the same incomplete criteria. They still follow the traditional nature conservation approach, which has failed to halt the loss of biodiversity. Democratic participatory processes are needed, which integrate the different measures of Agenda 21 while applying the interdisciplinary evaluation framework of biodiversity for sustainable development.     

Biodiversity: bridging the gap between condition and conservation

The aim of this study is to create a two-tiered assessment combining restoration and conservation, both needed for biodiversity management. The first tier of this approach assesses the condition of a site using a standard bioassessment method, AUSRIVAS, to determine whether significant loss of biodiversity has occurred because of human activity. The second tier assesses the conservation value of sites that were determined to be unimpacted in the first step against a reference database. This ensures maximum complementarity without having to set a priori target areas. Using the reference database, we assign site-specific and comparable coefficients for both restoration (Observed/Expected taxa with >50% probability of occurrence) and conservation values (O/E taxa with <50%, rare taxa). In a trial on 75 sites on rivers around Sydney, NSW, Australia we were able to identify three regions: (1) an area that may need restoration; (2) an area that had a high conservation value and; (3) a region that was identified as having significant biodiversity loss but with high potential to respond to rehabilitation and become a biodiversity hotspot. These examples highlight the use of the new framework as a comprehensive system for biodiversity assessment.     

A lack of response of the financial behaviors of biodiversity conservation nonprofits to changing economic conditions

The effectiveness of conservation organizations is determined in part by how they adapt to changing conditions. Over the previous decade, economic conditions in the United States (US) showed marked variation including a period of rapid growth followed by a major recession. We examine how biodiversity conservation nonprofits in the US responded to these changes through their financial behaviors, focusing on a sample of 90 biodiversity conservation nonprofits and the largest individual organization (The Nature Conservancy; TNC). For the 90 sampled organizations, an analysis of financial ratios derived from tax return data revealed little response to economic conditions. Similarly, more detailed examination of conservation expenditures and land acquisition practices of TNC revealed only one significant relationship with economic conditions: TNC accepted a greater proportion of conservation easements as donated in more difficult economic conditions. Our results suggest that the financial behaviors of US biodiversity conservation nonprofits are unresponsive to economic conditions.     

Genetic diversity is overlooked in international conservation policy implementation

The importance of genetic variation for maintaining biological diversity and evolutionary processes has been recognized by researchers for decades. This realization has prompted agreements by world leaders to conserve genetic diversity, and this is an explicit goal of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Nevertheless, very limited action has been taken to protect genetic diversity on a global scale. International conservation efforts to halt biodiversity loss focus on habitats and species, whereas little or no attention is paid to gene level variation. By this year, 2010, world leaders have agreed that a significant reduction of the rate of biodiversity loss should have been achieved. However, gene level diversity is still not monitored, indicators that can help identify threats to genetic variation are missing, and there is no strategy for how genetic aspects can be included in biodiversity targets beyond 2010. Important findings and conclusions from decades of conservation genetic research are not translated into concrete conservation action in the arena of international policy development. There is an urgent need for conservation geneticists worldwide to become involved in policy and practical conservation work beyond the universities and research institutions.     

Impact of land-use intensity on the conservation of functional and phylogenetic diversity in temperate semi-natural plant communities

The earth is facing a worldwide decline in biodiversity, with land-use change identified as one of the most important drivers. There is evidence that the loss of diversity has a significant impact on ecosystem functioning. Earlier research focused on species richness, but more recent, functional and phylogenetic diversity came into the picture as the stronger determinants of ecosystem processes. The effects of increasing land-use intensity on functional (FD) and phylogenetic diversity (PD), however, are still poorly understood. We studied how FD and PD are affected by land-use intensity in temperate plant communities. Our results show that land-use intensity has a clear impact on species richness, but also affects functional and phylogenetic diversity. Intensive agricultural areas fail to support high and sustainable levels of functional and phylogenetic diversity. These results highlight the need for the protection of biodiversity in nature reserves and the conservation of areas with extensive agricultural practices. Because species richness may influence the measures of functional and phylogenetic diversity, we compared the observed FD and PD values with random values generated with a matrix-swap null model. The observed discrepancy between species loss and the loss of FD and PD calls for an integrated approach to biodiversity conservation, in which the different components of biodiversity are considered together.     

Considerable qualitative variability in local-level biodiversity surveys in Finland: A challenge for biodiversity offsetting

High-quality biodiversity monitoring is crucial in the era of rapid global biodiversity loss and for the evaluation of conservation outcomes at different spatial scales. Biodiversity offsets are conservation actions that aim to an outcome of no net loss of biodiversity by compensating for the negative impacts from development projects. Successful use of offsets requires that the biodiversity gains and losses between offset and development areas are adequately and comparably measured. Numerous local-level biodiversity surveys are conducted to estimate the biodiversity values of potential development areas in Finland every year. These surveys are done for local planning purposes, and their results are almost never published. We studied Finnish biodiversity surveys to assess their adequacy with regards to biodiversity offsetting. Our data included all biodiversity surveys (n = 206) documented in the region of Southwest Finland during the time period of 1997–2014. We analysed the surveys based on Finnish nature legislation and biodiversity related criteria gathered from other offset and conservation programs. We found the surveys to be inadequate in their assessment of nature values and spatial considerations for offset purposes. We used cluster analysis to study the differences between surveys based on the inventoried nature values and found surveys were clustered into 3 different groups. The characteristics of surveys also varied between individual surveyors. Our results show that the current execution of biodiversity surveys is not compatible enough with the quality of surveys needed for biodiversity offsets. Surveys must be standardized to ensure their comparability and sufficient measurement of biodiversity with ecologically and geographically important features.     

The Global Environment Facility and biodiversity conservation: lessons to date and suggestions for future action

The last five years in particular have seen increasing attention paid to biodiversity. This culminated at the Earth Summit last June with the completion of Agenda 21 and a major international Convention on Biological Diversity, a document signed by some 165 nations. Concurrent with the Convention negotiations was the development of a global fund for biodiversity conservation and other environmental priorities, the Global Environment Facility (GEF). The GEF is the largest fund to data put forward by the international community to address biodiversity loss, but, so far, it has failed to set adequate priorities for biodiversity conservation. It has also yet to recognize the full range of biodiversity values and uses and, in general, GEF projects have not taken advantage of existing non-governmental capacity for biodiversity conservation. 1993 is a critical year for the GEF, one in which the GEF can become a critical element of global efforts to conserve biodiversity or remain an important initialive that realized only a fraction of its potential.     

Is community-based ecotourism a good use of biodiversity conservation funds?

Community-based ecotourism (CBET) has become a popular tool for biodiversity conservation, based on the principle that biodiversity must pay for itself by generating economic benefits, particularly for local people. There are many examples of projects that produce revenues for local communities and improve local attitudes towards conservation, but the contribution of CBET to conservation and local economic development is limited by factors such as the small areas and few people involved, limited earnings, weak linkages between biodiversity gains and commercial success, and the competitive and specialized nature of the tourism industry. Many CBET projects cited as success stories actually involve little change in existing local land and resource-use practices, provide only a modest supplement to local livelihoods, and remain dependent on external support for long periods, if not indefinitely. Investment in CBET might be justified in cases where such small changes and benefits can yield significant conservation and social benefits, although it must still be recognized as requiring a long term funding commitment. Here, I aim to identify conditions under which CBET is, and is not, likely to be effective, efficient and sustainable compared with alternative approaches for conserving biodiversity. I also highlight the need for better data and more rigorous analysis of both conservation and economic impacts.     

Market-based mechanisms for biodiversity conservation: a review of existing schemes and an outline for a global mechanism

Continuous decline of biodiversity over the past decades suggests that efforts to decrease biodiversity loss have been insufficient. One option to deal with this problem is the use of market-based mechanisms for biodiversity conservation. Several studies have analysed such mechanisms individually, but there is no comprehensive review with a comparative assessment of the performance of various mechanisms. This paper presents (i) an analysis of the economic conditions under which markets for biodiversity can be expected to function; (ii) an analysis of the efficiency of five selected biodiversity markets in the light of market and contract theory; and (iii) an assessment of the potential to scale up local or national payment mechanisms for biodiversity conservation. Our analysis shows the difficulties that market-based mechanisms face, among which are the need to ensure long-term conservation and the lack of a standardized unit of measurement for biodiversity. We provide a number of recommendations on how to overcome these difficulties. We argue that the set-up of a global registry embedded within the framework of the Convention on Biological Diversity would facilitate measurement, reporting and verification of biodiversity credits to support market-based mechanisms.     

How do biodiversity and conservation values relate to landscape preferences? A case study from the Swiss Alps

The importance of the values underlying different concepts of biodiversity conservation and landscape planning is increasingly recognised, and yet these value judgements of the public and of experts are still poorly understood. Although landscape and conservation management are closely interrelated and measures in one field are likely to have effects on the other, the relationship between biodiversity and conservation values on the one hand, and landscape preferences on the other hand, has been hardly explored so far. This study represents a first attempt to empirically examine this relationship from an integrated perspective, considering philosophical, ecological and economic aspects and using items focused on biodiversity. We used a quantitative survey of the general Swiss population with visualisations of potential landscape developments in the Swiss Alps and items related to biodiversity- and conservation-values. Our research shows that respondents who prefer reforested landscapes tend to be more concerned about the conservation of species, landscapes, and natural processes than people preferring cultural landscapes. Respondents who prefer cultural landscapes are more oriented towards utilitarian values and are overrepresented in mountain areas as compared to the lowlands, thus in areas that are more likely to become the target of conservation measures. Our findings have practical implications for conservation in Switzerland and other mountainous areas, particularly in times of agricultural decline and land abandonment and their associated changes in landscape and biodiversity.     

Arapaima co-management through the lens of the Protected Areas Assets Framework

An extensive network of Protected Areas (PA) has been established across the Brazilian Amazon, but this PA system still suffers from a shortage of funding resources and environmental managers. New conservation strategies that successfully align social aspirations with biodiversity conservation are therefore imperative. Although approaches exist that demonstrate the value of biodiversity conservation for society and the local/national economy, these do not always manage to capture intrinsic values or local perspectives on natural resource conservation, and this can generate limitations in the use of these approaches as conservation tools. Here, we assessed the case of arapaima (Arapaima spp.) co-management, a well-consolidated community-based conservation initiative, through the lens of the Protected Areas Asset Framework (PAAF) to investigate the material and immaterial value of PA assets. Arapaima was clearly recognized as a key biophysical natural asset by local communities, with a significant role in terms of food, cultural, economic and conservation importance, in addition to its status as an iconic and emblematic species. This study reinforces the potential of the PAAF to identify the diverse range of values associated with PAs. Our results also encourage wider support to strengthen collaborative sustainable natural resource management programmes such as arapaima co-management, which is achieving remarkable social and ecological outcomes in rural Amazonia.     

What's on the horizon for community-based conservation? Emerging threats and opportunities

Community-based conservation can support livelihoods and biodiversity, while reinforcing local and Indigenous values, cultures, and institutions. Its delivery can help address cross-cutting global challenges, such as climate change, conservation, poverty, and food security. Therefore, understanding trends in community-based conservation is pertinent to setting and implementing global goals. We undertook a horizon scan to prioritize 15 emerging threats and opportunities expected to impact the future effectiveness of community-based conservation. Topics relate to global biodiversity policy; human rights; shifting human geography; inclusion, diversity, equity, and access; conservation finance and income; and economic reforms. Our findings offer guidance on strengthening community-based conservation to achieve global environmental and development goals.     

简述《2020年后全球生物多样性框架》谈判进展

《生物多样性公约》(简称《公约》)第十五次缔约方大会(COP15)第二阶段会议上将审议通过正在编制的2020年后全球生物多样性框架(简称“框架”)。该框架具有里程碑意义, 对未来全球生物多样性保护、经济和社会发展有重要指导作用。由于生物多样性的持续丧失, 只有通过变革式的转型, 才能实现到2050年人与自然和谐发展的美好愿景。框架以变革理论为基础, 拟制定雄心勃勃又务实平衡的生物多样性保护目标。生物多样性与人类息息相关, 目标的制定将对人类社会的生产、消费等产生重大影响。由于《公约》机制和框架磋商的复杂性等多种原因, 仅极少数人完整地了解框架的内容和谈判进程。经过框架不限成员名额工作组(以下简称“OEWG”) 4次会议的磋商, 框架结构和要素已基本确定, 其中最受关注的是22个2030年行动目标, 包括减少对生物多样性的威胁(行动目标1‒8)、通过可持续利用和惠益分享来满足人的需求(行动目标9‒13)和执行工作和主流化的工具和解决方案(行动目标14‒22) 3个部分。本文介绍了OEWG第四次会议磋商的框架草案中行动目标的谈判进展, 对框架中30 × 30目标、资源调动等核心议题进行了分析, 从而为管理部门、科研机构、企业、社会组织、从事生物多样性教育和保护的广大工作者等社会各界了解全球生物多样性治理对国际经济秩序的重塑提供视角和方法上的参考, 从而更好地把握参与科技、贸易、投资、制造等领域国际竞争的环境政治动态与方向, 促进人与自然和谐共生, 共建地球生命共同体。     

Property rights and the marginal wildebeest: an economic analysis of wildlife conservation options in Kenya

This paper discusses policy responses to the potential loss of biodiversity in the Mara Area of Kenya from the conversion of essentially wild and undeveloped rangeland to developed agriculture. Property rights are central to the debate, and raise two fundamental issues. First, to what extent do the Maasai, the traditional users and owners of the land, have the right to benefit from the development potential of their land to further their economic, social and political standing, even if by so doing they create domestic and global externalities through the loss of biodiversity. Second, if the state alienates their development rights in the name of conservation, then to what extent should the state compensate the Maasai for their lost economic opportunities. To the Maasai, conservation as implemented through Government policy is a publicc bad: they are denied access to resources, their costs of production are significantly increased, and development is slowed down or actively discouraged. A cost:benefit analysis suggests that it is neither supportable nor sustainable to condemn the Maasai to a poverty trap on behalf of conservation, and that it is instead socially prolitable for the Kenyan Government to meet in full their opportunity costs of forgone economic benefits.