The Sampled Red List Index for Plants,phase II: ground-truthing specimen-based conservation assessments

The IUCN Sampled Red List Index (SRLI) is a policy response by biodiversity scientists to the need to estimate trends in extinction risk of the world''s diminishing biological diversity. Assessments of plant species for the SRLI project rely predominantly on herbarium specimen data from natural history collections, in the overwhelming absence of accurate population data or detailed distribution maps for the vast majority of plant species. This creates difficulties in re-assessing these species so as to measure genuine changes in conservation status, which must be observed under the same Red List criteria in order to be distinguished from an increase in the knowledge available for that species, and thus re-calculate the SRLI. However, the same specimen data identify precise localities where threatened species have previously been collected and can be used to model species ranges and to target fieldwork in order to test specimen-based range estimates and collect population data for SRLI plant species. Here, we outline a strategy for prioritizing fieldwork efforts in order to apply a wider range of IUCN Red List criteria to assessments of plant species, or any taxa with detailed locality or natural history specimen data, to produce a more robust estimation of the SRLI.     

Bryophyte Red List of Serbia and Montenegro

The bryophyte Red List of Serbia and Montenegro comprises 254 species (212 mosses and 42 liverworts). Serbia and Montenegro have 39.50% of threatened bryoflora. One moss species is considered as extinct (Encalypta serbica Katic). In the threatened categories there are 20 critically endangered (CR), 35 endangered (EN) and 100 vulnerable (VU) bryophyte species. Seventy-two species are considered to be of low risk, and 36 are too data deficient to place them in any category, but potentially with further investigation will enter one of the threat categories in the Red List.     

关于IUCN红色名录类型和标准的应用

１９９４年底,ＩＵＣＮ（世界保护联盟）正式公布了“红色名录类型”,对物种受威胁的情况作了比较客观的分类,提出了许多具体的数量标准以便进行分析判断。本文概略介绍该分类系统及其划分标准的实际应用,供开展物种受威胁的评估工作参考     

Assessment of Hebei flora against the IUCN Red List Criteria in China

Some plants of Hebei Province in China are under threat from human activities, such as over-herding and over-exploitation of wild medicinal plants and industrial plants, etc. To identify the plants in danger in the province and to inspect the quality of the environment encompassing Beijing and Tianjin, a red list of the threatened flora of Hebei Province was produced by using the IUCN Red List Criteria (version 3.1) and its guidelines (version 6.2). Some 262 species were assessed and the results were as follows: (1) the threatened flora include 211 species, accounting for 7.95% of the total native vascular plants. Among them, 44 are Critically Endangered, 80 Endangered and 87 Vulnerable; (2) the destruction of the habitat caused by human activities and the actual or potential exploitation of the plants themselves were the main threat factors of Hebei flora; (3) most of the threatened plants are located in the western, northern and northeastern mountainous regions, namely the key regions of Hebei plant diversity; the endemic and regionally endemic species are severely threatened. Consequently, the assessment not only presented the threatened status of Hebei flora but also indicated the relatively fragile health status of the environment of Beijing and Tianjin. Thus, it is suggested that the application of the IUCN Red List Criteria at the regional level, as an index, could reflect the health status of the local ecosystem. In addition, more concrete measures are needed to conserve the plant diversity and the natural ecosystem of Hebei Province and even the whole region encompassing Beijing and Tianjin.     

Assessment of Hebei flora against the IUCN Red List Criteria in China

Some plants of Hebei Province in China are under threat from human activities,such as over-herding and over-exploitation of wild medicinal plants and industrial plants,etc.To identify the plants in danger in the province and to inspect the quality of the environment encompassing Beijing and Tianjin,a red list of the threatened flora of Hebei Province was produced by using the IUCN Red List Criteria (version 3.1) and its guidelines (version 6.2).Some 262 species were assessed and the results were as follows:(1) the threatened flora include 211 species,accounting for 7.95% of the total native vascular plants.Among them,44 are Critically Endangered,80 Endangered and 87 Vulnerable;(2) the destruction of the habitat caused by human activities and the actual or potential exploitation of the plants themselves were the main threat factors of Hebei flora;(3) most of the threatened plants are located in the western,northern and northeastern mountainous regions,namely the key regions of Hebei plant diversity;the endemic and regionally endemic species are severely threatened.Consequently,the assessment not only presented the threatened status of Hebei flora but also indicated the relatively fragile health status of the environment of Beijing and Tianjin.Thus,it is suggested that the application of the IUCN Red List Criteria at the regional level,as an index,could reflect the health status of the local ecosystem,In addition,more concrete measures are needed to conserve the plant diversity and the natural ecosystem of Hebei Province and even the whole region encompassing Beijing and Tianjin.     

A practical guide to the application of the IUCN Red List of Ecosystems criteria

The newly developed IUCN Red List of Ecosystems is part of a growing toolbox for assessing risks to biodiversity, which addresses ecosystems and their functioning. The Red List of Ecosystems standard allows systematic assessment of all freshwater, marine, terrestrial and subterranean ecosystem types in terms of their global risk of collapse. In addition, the Red List of Ecosystems categories and criteria provide a technical base for assessments of ecosystem status at the regional, national, or subnational level. While the Red List of Ecosystems criteria were designed to be widely applicable by scientists and practitioners, guidelines are needed to ensure they are implemented in a standardized manner to reduce epistemic uncertainties and allow robust comparisons among ecosystems and over time. We review the intended application of the Red List of Ecosystems assessment process, summarize ‘best-practice’ methods for ecosystem assessments and outline approaches to ensure operational rigour of assessments. The Red List of Ecosystems will inform priority setting for ecosystem types worldwide, and strengthen capacity to report on progress towards the Aichi Targets of the Convention on Biological Diversity. When integrated with other IUCN knowledge products, such as the World Database of Protected Areas/Protected Planet, Key Biodiversity Areas and the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, the Red List of Ecosystems will contribute to providing the most complete global measure of the status of biodiversity yet achieved.     

Application to the terrestrial vertebrates of Italy of a system proposed by IUCN for a new classification of national Red List categories

The criteria for classification set down in the new system of the IUCN Red List categories were applied to national distribution areas. Application of the new criteria to national distribution areas calls for an estimate of the rate of immigration. Classification was applied to the Italian autochthonous terrestrial vertebrate species that reproduce in Italy (Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves and Mammalia). Species with both marine and land habitats were included, but Cetaceans were excluded. Eighty-eight species of the autochthonous species that reproduce in Italy were classified in the threatened categories at the national level. One of the main purposes of the present classification of the risk of extinction in national distribution areas is to provide the information needed to define global conservation priorities of species present on national territory. The species nationally and/or globally endangered or at lower risk were grouped into four priority classes, on the basis of their reproductive phenology on national territory and the size of temporarily present contingents. Of the 551 species present regularly or seasonally on Italian territory, 149 (27.0%) are in the initial indicative list of conservation priorities.     

Red Data List of Charophytes in the Balkans

The occurrence of 47 species of all the six recent genera of charophytes recorded in the Balkans is demonstrated. Our aim was to assess their status of threat according to the 2001 IUCN threat categories and criteria, in order to establish the Red List of Charophytes distributed in the Balkan Peninsula. The List underlines the diversity of charophytes in this part of the world and provides guidelines for its conservation. Analysis of the charophytes in each category of threat has provided a general overview of their distribution, species richness, population features and possibility of survival throughout the various regions of the Balkan Peninsula.     

Supporting Red List threat assessments with GeoCAT: geospatial conservation assessment tool

GeoCAT is an open source, browser based tool that performs rapid geospatial analysis to ease the process of Red Listing taxa. Developed to utilise spatially referenced primary occurrence data, the analysis focuses on two aspects of the geographic range of a taxon: the extent of occurrence (EOO) and the area of occupancy (AOO). These metrics form part of the IUCN Red List categories and criteria and have often proved challenging to obtain in an accurate, consistent and repeatable way. Within a familiar Google Maps environment, GeoCAT users can quickly and easily combine data from multiple sources such as GBIF, Flickr and Scratchpads as well as user generated occurrence data. Analysis is done with the click of a button and is visualised instantly, providing an indication of the Red List threat rating, subject to meeting the full requirements of the criteria. Outputs including the results, data and parameters used for analysis are stored in a GeoCAT file that can be easily reloaded or shared with collaborators. GeoCAT is a first step toward automating the data handling process of Red List assessing and provides a valuable hub from which further developments and enhancements can be spawned.     

Defining a role for herbarium data in Red List assessments: a case study of Plectranthus from eastern and southern tropical Africa

Red Lists are widely used to indicate species at risk of extinction. Specimen sheets in herbaria provide an important source of data relevant for Red List assessments. The aims of this paper are to establish which data can be sourced from specimen information to satisfy IUCN Red Data List criteria and to identify the specific criteria that can be used. Red List parameters are measured within a Geographical Information System (GIS), as this provides an objective and repeatable methodology which is less subjective than manual methods. Data used to explore this were gathered during the course of preparing a monograph on Plectranthus (Lamiaceae). Criteria relating to distribution (extent of occurrence, area of occupancy and fragmentation) and population profile (projected continuing decline and number of subpopulations) proved most suitable for assigning categories of threat. Estimates of mature individuals, generation length, population size, population reduction, extreme fluctuation and number of locations could not be derived from herbarium material without making inconsistent subjective decisions. In addition to comprehensively databased specimen information, extensive field knowledge is required to produce better estimates for assessing extinction risk. In order to enhance the usefulness of specimen information in the future, improvements in recording additional botanical data at the time of collection would be beneficial. Overall, herbaria provide a useful starting point for conservation-related work and can help to guide future work.     

Review of risk assessment systems of IAS in Europe and introducing the German–Austrian Black List Information System (GABLIS)

We give a mini-review of existing European risk assessment procedures and present a newly developed and tested risk assessment tool for invasive alien species (IAS) in Germany and Austria, the “German–Austrian Black List Information System” (GABLIS). Based on the analysis of existing European national risk assessment systems, we analyse and discuss: the assessment criteria used; which impacts of IAS (biodiversity, economy) have been considered; for which taxonomic groups has the assessment been designed and tested; how many and which list categories have been used; and, the status of the assessment, i.e. legally binding or advisory. We found that the application of risk assessment systems in Europe started belatedly, however recently a considerable number of assessment systems have been developed and tested. These systems encompass a wide range of purposes and approaches, and so far, no common standard on the aspects mentioned above has been emerged.GABLIS has been developed as a trans-national and taxonomically universal risk assessment system, which takes into account solely the detrimental effects of alien species on biodiversity. We describe which kinds of impacts are considered and how the thresholds have been scaled. We present the structure of the list categories, and we discuss the necessary underlying data for assessment, the assessment criteria and their scaling, and the assessment procedure. Five basic and six complementary criteria are used to assess the alien species’ impact. GABLIS includes three main list categories (White List, Grey List, and Black List).We discuss the practicability of GABLIS by presenting the assessment results of a model taxon (fish), and by presenting the assessment protocol for a vascular plant species. We discuss the necessary data quality for assessments, and the factors which account for differences in the assessments between both countries. We also report on experiences gained in assessments (e.g., average time necessary for assessments). The lessons learnt are discussed in the national and European political context of IAS management.Finally, we explore the strengths and caveats of this approach in the context of national policy on IAS in Germany and Austria and the ongoing European political initiatives. GABLIS is intended to serve as a comprehensive, flexible, but robust risk assessment tool for Central Europe. Being a trans-national risk assessment tool, GABLIS also tests principles, which might contribute valuable insights for a future overall strategy against IAS in Europe.     

A new methodology for compiling national Red Lists applied to butterflies (Lepidoptera, Rhopalocera) in Flanders (N-Belgium) and the Netherlands

The compilation of the Red Lists of butterflies in Flanders and the Netherlands was based on two criteria: a trend criterion (degree of decline) and a rarity criterion (actual distribution area). However, due to the large difference in mapping intensity in the two compared periods, a straightforward comparison of the number of grid cells in which each species was recorded, appeared inappropriate. To correct for mapping intensity we used reference species that are homogeneously distributed over the country, that have always been fairly common and that did not fluctuate in abundance too much during this century. For all resident species a relative presence in two compared periods was calculated, using the average number of grid cells in which these reference species were recorded as a correction factor. The use of a standardized method and well-defined quantitative criteria makes national Red Lists more objective and easier to re-evaluate in the future and facilitates the comparison of Red Lists among countries and among different organisms. The technique applied to correct for mapping intensity could be useful to other organisms when there is a large difference in mapping intensity between two periods.     

中国大型高等真菌生物多样性的关键类群

由于生物多样性的关键类群在科学研究、社会经济及生态系统中所处的重要地位,有必要对其进行筛选和确定。在多年的野外考察和有关文献资料分析的基础上,参照植物和动物关键类群的划分原理及方法,结合高等真菌的特点将大型高等真菌划分为3种类型：濒危类群、重大科学价值类群和重要经济类群。其中,濒危类群指在近年的考察和报告中发现的数量急剧减少或由于过度的采集资源明显受到威胁的种类,其中有虫草属(Cordyceps)的中华虫草(C．siaensis)、块菌属(Tuber)的中华块菌(T．sinense)、假下陷块菌(T．pseu—doexcawatum)、喜马拉雅块菌(T.himalayense)、革菌属(Thelephora)的干巴菌(T．ganbajun)、口蘑属的松茸(Tricholoma matsuatke)及其近缘种和蒙古口蘑(T．mongolicum);重大科学价值类群指在真菌系统演化或与动、植物和其它真菌协同进化中的一些重要类群,或在应用研究领域具重要价值的类群,如鸡Zong菌属(Termitomyces)、鹅膏属(Amanita)、腹菌与伞菌的过渡类型如地红菇属(Macowanites)、粉褶包属(Richoniella)、轴腹菌属(Hydnangium)、腹牛肝菌属(Gastroboletus)等、牛肝菌类中的一些特殊单种属和寡种属如圆花孢牛肝菌属(Heimiel-la)、圆孔牛肝菌属(Gyroporus)等;重要经济类群指广为利用的食用菌、药用菌和外生菌根菌,其中主要有虫草属的中华虫草、块菌属的中华块菌、鸡Zong菌属盾尖鸡Zong菌(T．dypeatus)、鸡Zong菌(T.ewrhizus)、球形鸡Zong菌(T．gtoulus)、口蘑属的松茸群及蒙古口蘑、牛肝菌属(Bolaus)的美味牛肝菌(B．edulis)、小美牛肝菌(R．speciosus)、茶褐牛肝菌(B．brunneissimus)等,乳菇的红汁乳菇(L,hatsudake)、松乳菇(L．deliciosus)、多汁乳菇(L．volemus）、红菇属的变绿红菇(R．vir-escens)、蓝黄红菇(R．cyanoxantha)、鹅膏属的红黄鹅膏(A．hemibapha)、隐花青鹅膏(A．mang-iniana)、灵芝属(Ganoderma)的灵芝(G,lucidum)及紫芝(G,sinense)、竹荪属(Dictyophora)、豆马勃属(Pisdithus)的一些种。这些种由于具有重要的经济价值而受到过度的采集,故往往与濒危的种类一致。关键类群的筛选与提出为大型高等真菌的研究、应用和保护提供参考。     

The Red Tooth Hypothesis: A computational model of predator-prey relations, protean escape behavior and sexual reproduction

This paper presents an extension of the Red Queen Hypothesis (hereafter, RQH) that we call the Red Tooth Hypothesis (RTH). This hypothesis suggests that predator-prey relations may play a role in the maintenance of sexual reproduction in many higher animals. RTH is based on an interaction between learning on the part of predators and evolution on the part of prey. We present a simple predator-prey computer simulation that illustrates the effects of this interaction. This simulation suggests that the optimal escape strategy from the prey's standpoint would be to have a small number of highly reflexive, largely innate (and, therefore, very fast) escape patterns, but that would also be unlearnable by the predator. One way to achieve this would be for each individual in the prey population to have a small set of hard-wired escape patterns, but which were different for each individual.We argue that polymorphic escape patterns at the population level could be produced via sexual reproduction at little or no evolutionary cost and would be as, or potentially more, efficient than individual-level protean (i.e., random) escape behavior. We further argue that, especially under high predation pressure, sexual recombination would be a more rapid, and therefore more effective, means of producing highly variable escape behaviors at the population level than asexual reproduction.     

Taxonomic selectivity in amphibians: ignorance, geography or biology?

Many taxa, including amphibians, have been shown to have a taxonomically non-random distribution of threatened species. There are three possible non-exclusive reasons for this selectivity: non-random knowledge of species conservation status, clades endemic to different regions experiencing different intensities of threatening process and the effects of clade-specific biological attributes on the susceptibility of species to these processes. This paper tests the sufficiency of the first two explanations using extinction risk evaluations from the 2004 Global Amphibian Assessment. Our results indicate that they cannot alone account for the degree of non-randomness in extinction risk among amphibian families. The overall distribution of threatened amphibians remained taxonomically non-random when species of unknown conservation status were omitted, and significant selectivity was detected not only at a global geographic scale but also in country- and site-specific data sets. Furthermore, the same families tend to be over- or underthreatened within different countries. Together, these results suggest that biological differences among amphibian families play an important role in determining species' susceptibility to anthropogenic threatening processes.     

圈养小熊猫育幼行为的初步观察

Nursing behaviors of the captive md pandas were quantitatively studied by focal sampling methods in Chengdu Research Base of Giant Panda Breeding from Jldy to August, 2000. The results indicated that frequencies of activity and rest were low in the first three days after birth, and became higher as time went by. The frequency of licking cub was higher in the first day after birth and deserting cub was only observed in the seventh day. Frequencies of some behaviors, such as rest, licking cub, cherishing cub,sniffing cub, returning to shed and deserting cub, differed sioaificantly in different phases of the first month after birth. Frequencies of licking cub, cherishing cub, sniffing cub and returning to shed were significantly higher in the pre-nursing period than in the midnursing and post-nursing periods. However, frequencies of rest and deserting cub were sioaificantly higher in the post-nursing period than in the per-nursing and mid-nursing periods. The degree of maternal behaviors can be inferred from degree that the mother exposes her babies to the envim~unent and the time that the mother leaves her shed.     

The use of specimen information influences the outcomes of Red List assessments: the case of southern African plant specimens

Information contained on specimen labels of natural history collections is often the most reliable and available source of information to guide conservation decisions. When used for making IUCN Red List assessments, the inherent limitations associated with specimen information affect the assignment of Red List categories, and the case of the southern African plant Red Lists reflects this. Red List assessments that are based on specimen information can result in predictable outcomes, namely the tendency to assign the following categories: Data Deficient, Lower Risk-least concern, Vulnerable D2 or a threatened category using Criterion B. The reason for this is that specimen information satisfies distribution parameters of the IUCN system more readily than demographic parameters.     

Consideration of Background Radiation in Ecological Risk Assessments

Background or ambient concentrations are often considered in the evaluation of potential risks to ecological receptors from exposure to hazardous chemicals in the environment. Such an evaluation may be a component of the screening or final risk management process and sets the baseline from which risks contributed by site-related activities can be addressed. Although the process for the evaluation of potential radiological risks to ecological receptors is less formalized than the chemical hazard assessment process, background remains an issue that should be addressed when considering potential site-related impacts. This paper briefly presents the ecological risk assessment approaches used to address background radionuclide concentrations at three United States Department of Defense Facilities. The concepts of total radiation dose, and tolerance and adaptation of populations to radiation are also discussed within the context of background radiation.