Do hyraxes benefit from human presence in Serengeti?

Understanding the factors affecting a species’ population size is crucial for conservation initiatives. Hyraxes are small, gregarious animals, predominantly found on kopjes (rock outcrops) and thus form metapopulation communities. In Tanzania, two species of hyraxes inhabit Serengeti National Park, the rock hyrax Procavia capensis johnstoni and bush hyrax Heterohyrax brucei. This study focuses on the factors that affect hyrax population size, including factors such as human presence, habitat type, kopje size and kopje height. We found that larger and taller kopjes tended to have more hyraxes than smaller ones, while kopjes in wooded grassland had more hyraxes than kopjes in grassland. Human presence often affects species negatively, but in the case of hyraxes, we found that kopjes with human presence had larger populations than kopjes without humans. We discuss possible explanations for this and suggest that human presence is related to fewer predators and higher food availability.     

Avian community composition of kopjes in a heterogeneous landscape

We examined avian communities of kopjes (naturally occurring insular rock outcrops) in grassland and thorn tree woodland habitats in the Seronera region of Serengeti National Park, northwestern Tanzania. Although kopjes cover a small proportion of the Park's area, they provide resources that are uncommon in the Serengeti landscape and are known to host diverse, yet poorly documented, biotic communities. The primary objectives of this study were (1) to compare avian communities of kopjes with those of their surrounding habitat matrixes; (2) to compare the avian communities among kopjes; and (3) to determine the effects of kopje characteristics (e.g., size, vegetation cover, level of human disturbance and matrix type) on avian diversity and community composition. The avian communities of kopjes differed significantly from those of the matrixes in species composition and guild characteristics. Rare species, frugivorous species and nectarivorous species were more abundant on kopjes, whereas there were more ground-feeding species in matrix sites. Species richness was positively correlated with the area of kopjes covered by tall vegetation (5+ m), but neither total habitat area nor total vegetation cover significantly affected avian diversity. The surrounding habitat type, the fruiting phenology of Ficus and Commiphora trees and the level of human disturbance also influenced the presence and abundance of individual species and accounted for differences in community composition among kopjes. Our results show that kopjes support unique avian assemblages comprising many species that are otherwise rare in Serengeti, and consequently that kopjes may be local hotspots of avian diversity in the region.     

A THIRD CONTRIBUTION TO THE ORNITHOLOGY OF THE BRITISH CAMEROONS

A collection of over 1, 900 skins made in Southern British Cameroons 1955–1957 is described. The range of many forms is extended.
The field habits of many forms are described and there are observations on the nidification of the following:
Francolinus bicalcaratus ogilvie-granti
Columba arquatrix sjöstedti
Centropus monachus occidentalis
Apus affinis abessynicus
Motacilla clara chapini
Ixonotus g. guttatus
Andropadus I. latirostris
Alseonax adjustus obscurus
Erranornis longicauda teresita
Terpsiphone r. rufocinerea
Turdus libonyanus saturatus
Cossypha c. cyanocampter
Petrochelidon preussi
Cinnyricinclus l. leucogaster
Chalcomitra r. rubescens Cyanomitra oritis bansoensis Gymnoris d. dentata Quelea erythrops Spermestes bicolor poensis
The stomach contents of several hundred specimens are noted and recorded in such general terms as fruit, seeds, or insects.
Taxonomy . The following races are regarded as invalid: Streptopelia vinacea savannae, Gymnobucco calvus major, Bradypterus barratti youngi, Anthreptes fraseri cameroonensis .
The following controversial races are upheld: Tympanistria tympanistria fraseri, Pedilorhynchus comitatus camerunensis .
Megabyas flammulatus is regarded as a species without races.     

THE EFFECT OF RUBIDIUM SULPHATE AND PALLADIUM CHLORIDE ON THE GROWTH OF PLANTS

1. Comparisons have been made between the action of rubidium sulphate and palladium chloride on the growth of barley, wheat, oats peas and beans in complete nutrient solutions.
2. Over a wide range of concentrations rubidium sulphate was not found to exercise either a beneficial or a harmful action on the growth of any of the species tested. The germination of the seeds was likewise not affected.
3. No benefit was derived from palladium chloride , but at a comparatively low concentration a harmful action occurred which became more intense with increasing concentration. Stunting of the main root and laterals was a characteristic feature of this toxicity. With the lower concentrations the check was temporary, and the roots eventually made normal growth, as good as that in the control plants. With increasing amounts of pallahum chloride the poisoning effect became more persistent, until a concentration was reached which did not allow of any root or shoot recovery.
4. The tolerance of palladium varies with the species, as was indicated b. the measure of recovery. Barley appeared to be the least, and oats the most sensitive of the three cereals tested. Peas responded at much the same concentrations as barley, but broad beans made so complete a recovery from the initial checking that the dry weights were ultimately not reduced even by the strongest concentration tested, the plants being indistinguishable from the controls.
5. The effect of palladium poisoning was similar whether the seeds were germinated in the presence of palladium or whether the seedlings were not introduced to it until they were about a week old.     

Human habituation reduces hyrax flight initiation distance in Serengeti

Many animal populations are exposed to disturbance originating from human activities. In response to human disturbance, certain animals display a variety of potentially costly behavioural responses, such as increased antipredator behaviour or relocation to new areas. In contrast, other animals seemingly thrive in the presence of humans and benefit from human-derived resources. Flight initiation distance (FID: the distance between predator and prey when prey starts to flee) is a measure commonly used to assess animals’ tolerance to humans. In this study, we tested how FID changes in relation to human presence in two hyrax species in Serengeti National Park. Hyraxes living on kopjes (rock outcrops) among human settlements showed a significantly shorter FID than hyraxes living on kopjes without human settlements. In addition, we found that hyraxes feeding before the experiment had shorter FID than hyraxes resting or being vigilant, and hyraxes disturbed during the early morning had shorter FID than hyraxes disturbed during late morning. We did not find any significant effects of group size or species composition on FID. Our results suggest that hyraxes living in the presence of humans are habituated and are not adversely affected by human settlements.     

Demography and competition in Hyrax

Summary This study investigates the demography and interspecific interactions of 6 Heterohyrax brucei and 4 Procavia johnstoni populations, which inhabited 6 kopjes (rock outcrops) in the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania over a period of 17 years. On three kopjes (H1, O2 and PH2) both species lived sympatrically, while on the other three (H2, H3 and P1) either one or the other species occurred allopatrically. The rainfall pattern between 1971/1972 and 1981/1982 had undergone major changes. There was significantly less precipitation in the wet season and the dry season had become extremer and longer. The kopje vegetation, recorded as percentage crown cover of browse from bushes and trees, had changed also, decreasing between 1971/72 and 1982 on 5 kopjes. In three kopjes (H1, O2 and PH2), which were shared by both hyrax species, an increase in the number of P. johnstoni, a decrease (H1 and O2) and extinction (PH2) of H. brucei took place between the time periods 1971–1976 (good browse years) and 1982–1984 (poor browse years). These changes are probably the result of indirect interspecific competition (exploitative competition) for browse material, which is the main food source for both species during the dry season. When the browsing resources are abundant coexistence on sympatric kopjes between both species is possible, but when browse is scarce the result is competitive exclusion of H. brucei by P. johnstoni. It is also argued, that P. johnstoni by being the larger species and by also being a grazer had several ecological advantages over H. brucei. In kopjes H2, H3 and P1 where H. brucei occurred allopatrically the population increased (H2, P1) or decreased (H3) during the same time period. Natural extinction was observed in kopje P1 in the allopatrically living P. johnstoni group through mange. Dispersal of 7 females and 7 males H. brucei as well as 1 female and 4 male P. johnstoni were recorded in kopjes H1, H2 and P1. One female H. brucei that immigrated successfully into kopje H2 reached an age of over 11 years. One H. brucei family group (H2) shifted its birth season from December–January to May–August. Successful natural colonization was recorded for H. brucei in kopje P1 and for P. johnstoni in H1. Two kopjes (PH2 and H3), which had no hyrax and are located far away from other hyrax populations, were experimentally colonized in 1971 and 1972 respectively. The P. Johnstoni on PH2 and the H. brucei group on H3 had been under breeding isolation for 16 years. Under such conditions P. johnstoni males can reach an age of over 8.5 years. These long-term observations have shown that the occupancy of the kopjes by both species is a dynamic process depending on the combination of several abiotic (rainfall and availability of holes and hiding places) and biotic factors (interspecific and intraspecific competition for food, interspecific cooperation, predation and parasites) as well as the degree of inbreeding dependent on the geographic isolation of the kopje.SWRC publication No. 448     

THE MAIN VICISSITUDES OF THE EUROPEAN AVIFAUNA SINCE THE PLIOCENE

.1. Recent knowledge of the Pleistocene and subsequent ecological changes is summarized. Four glaciations are recognized, each with more than one maximum. The interglacials were all at least as warm as the present day.
2. A map shows the vegetation belts of Europe and the probable limits of permanent sea-ice at the height of the Last Glaciation, about 70,000 years ago. There is reason to believe that the main features of the vegetation-map would apply also to the height of the other glaciations.
3. The avian fossil data are discussed and for the most part of necessity rejected for the present purpose.
4. The main inferences drawn of bird distribution at a glacial maximum are that ( a ) a rich avifauna occupied the treeless (grassy) loess-tundra on the southern edge of the ice, ( b ) practically no arboreal birds could live north of the Pyrenees, the Alps and the Black Sea except in a strip across central Russia, ( c ) the birds of deciduous woodland were confined to part of the three Mediterranean peninsulas, ( d ) "Mediterranean" species were practically expelled from Europe.
5. This implies that the populations of coniferous forest must have been reduced to about one-third of their interglacial extent in Europe and those of deciduous woodlands to one-tenth. Most of the sea-bird species probably suffered less severe fluctuations in numbers, but underwent north-and-south changes in breeding range.
6. The post-glacial recovery of the climate has not been uninterrupted, so that in the last 80,000 years there have probably been only about 8000 during which there have been any arboreal birds north of Germany.
7. The implications of the changes on the details of the migration system are discussed.     

THE FOOD AND REPRODUCTIVE CYCLES OF THE CENTIPEDES LITHOBIUS VARIEGATUS AND LITHOBIUS FORFICATUS IN A YORKSHIRE WOODLAND

Lithobius variegatus and L. forficatus occupy similar ecological niches and frequently occur together although there are differences in their distribution in the British Isles. An investigation of their food and reproductive cycles, being a preliminary step towards a further understanding of their ecological relationships, is described.
Lithobiomorph centipedes have hitherto been regarded as wholly carnivorous, but it is shown that these species feed on litter as well as small litter animals, the presence of litter in the guts of these species not being connected with the presence of animal remains. Whereas L. forficatus takes litter throughout the year, L. variegatus does so mainly in the winter.
Both species appear to lay eggs for a considerable part of the year, though there appears to be only a short period of sperm transfer in spring. It is suggested that the long oviposition period may prevent the loss of the entire brood in a dry summer. The succession of epimorph stadia in L. variegatus is described.
L. forficatus was more common than L. variegatus in the drior part of the woods studied.     

PATTERNS IN THE GEOGRAPHICAL RANGES OF SPECIES

1. A growing number of studies have documented patterns in species geographic ranges relevant to the study of community structure. These include patterns in the frequency of geographic ranges of different sizes, and in the interaction of range sizes with population abundances and variabilities, body sizes, trophic characteristics and extinction probabilities.
2. Agreement between hypothesized and observed relationships is reasonably good, but we do not know how general the patterns are. Analysis of patterns has focused upon a few taxonomic groups, a bias largely resulting from a lack of information on the geographic distributions of most taxa.
3. Many of the patterns are interrelated, and although theoretical bases to all the patterns can be suggested, it is possible that some are artifacts.
4. Taylor power plots give us a means of making predictions about population behaviour as it pertains to geographic ranges. Some of these predictions suggest that previous conceptions of such interactions have been too narrow, but empirical analyses of these patterns will be hampered by the difficulty of measuring population variability.
5. In general, our knowledge of the structure, and spatial and temporal behaviour, of species geographic ranges remains poor.     

A COUNT OF THE LARGE MAMMALS OF THE LAKE MANYARA NATIONAL PARK: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

1. The method of counting the large mammals in Lake Manyara National Park is described.
2. The results of the count are listed, and the biomass estimated.
3. It is suggested that the present population exceeds the carryingcapacity because elephant and buffalo are being made to enter and stay in the Park by increasing cultivation round the boundaries.
4. The rise in lake level has aggravated the position by cutting off another route of entry an d exit.
5. The extinction of the plains game population is likewise attributed to the new lake level and increased cultivation.     

THE BREEDING BIRDS OF THE HULEH SWAMP AND LAKE (NORTHERN ISRAEL).

1. The Huleh swamp and lake, which are now under a draining scheme, are described in relation to their vegetation habitats and the birds breeding in them.
2. Data are presented on the breeding birds, concerning their distribution within Israel, laying season, nest site and clutch size.
3. The Common Heron, White-tailed Eagle, Marsh Harrier, Mallard, Baillon's Crake, Yellow Wagtail, Moustached Warbler and the Great Reed Warbler are here first recorded as breeding in Israel.
4. The relationship between Acrocephalus arundinaceus and A. stentoreus is discussed.
5. Some remarks are made on habitat selection of the warblers breeding in the area.     

Subsocial behaviour and biology of some Mexican membracid bugs

Abstract. 1. Observations were made in Mexico on the subsocial behaviour and biology of some membracids. An attempt was made to quantify the amount of violence to which the female of Bilimekia broomfieldi could be subjected without causing it to abandon its eggs or larvae.
2. The brooding behaviour of females of different species can be very dissimilar, even within the same genus, e.g. Polyglypta.
3. The females of many species exhibit a striking reversal of behaviour when they begin to tend eggs. When not tending eggs or larvae they take evasive action, often flying away, when a large predator approaches closely. However, once they are brooding the female stays with the eggs when a large predator approaches and may behave in a manner that in a higher animal might be described as a purposeful counter-attack.
4. Brooding females of Bilimekia broomfieldi were killed and other brooding females were used as surrogate mothers for the orphaned eggs and larvae. The surrogate mothers appeared to behave towards the strange eggs and larvae as if they had been their own.
5. Observations were made on the way in which some membracids defend themselves against attacks by ants.
6. During development, membracids of most species undergo morphological colour changes. The significance of the change from black aposematic in first instar larvae to bright yellow and black aposematic in later instars, a change which appears not to be reversed in any species, is discussed.
7. The aposematic pattern of the larvae of some species of both Membracis and Acanophora partly consists of a white encrustation secreted in patches or stripes over the epicuticle. The encrustation reflects ultraviolet light, so perhaps the aposematic pattern confers some protection against other insects as well as vertebrates.
8. A new species of membracid, Bilimeki broomfieldi , is described.     

Interrelationships between Arixenia emu (Dermaptera) and molossid bats and their ectoparasites in Malaysia

Abstract. 1. Four species of Molossidae occur in Malaysia ( Cheiromeles torquatus and three Tadarida species) and from these, six species of potentially ectoparasitic insect have been recorded (two Etermaptera: Arixeniina; two Hemiptera: Cimicidae; two Siphonaptera: Ischnopsyllidae).
2. The two Arixeniina, Arixenia esau and Xeniaria jacobsoni are obligatorily associated with C. torquatus and only accidentally with Tadarida species with which C. torquatus often roosts. The nature of this association is presumed to be mutualistic and its origins are discussed.
3. A.esau can occur in great numbers in association with C.torquatus. It is primarily a roost dweller and is seldom found upon flying bats, although it is in this way that transference to new roosts must occur. It feeds mainly upon body exudates and skin debris from its hairless host. Aspects of its biology are discussed.
4. Arixenia species are usually found together with Xeniaria species but always greatly outnumber them. Differences between A.esau and X.jacobsoni are discussed.
5. The remaining four species of insect all feed upon blood and are truly parasitic, both species of bedbug and one flea being associated with C. torquatus and the other flea with Tadarida species. A.esau acts as a phoretic host for the flea host-specific to C. torquatus. Lagaropsylla turba. Otherwise no interactions were noted amongst the six insects.     

Why does the unimodal species richness–productivity relationship not apply to woody species: a lack of clonality or a legacy of tropical evolutionary history?

Aim  To study how differences in species richness patterns of woody and herbaceous plants may be influenced by ecological and evolutionary factors. Unimodal species richness–productivity relationships (SRPRs) have been of interest to ecologists since they were first described three decades ago for British herbaceous vegetation by J. P. Grime. The decrease in richness at high productivity may be due to competitive exclusion of subordinate species, or diverse factors related to evolution and dispersal. Unimodal SRPRs are most often reported for plants, but there are exceptions. For example, unimodal SRPRs are common in the temperate zone but not in the tropics. Similarly, woody species and forest communities in the Northern Hemisphere do not tend to show unimodal SRPRs.
Location  Global.
Methods  We used data from the literature to test whether a unimodal SRPR applies to woody species and forest communities on a global scale. We explored whether the shape of SRPRs may be related to the lack of clonality in woody species (which may prevent their being competitively superior), or the legacy of evolutionary history (most temperate woody species originate from tropical lineages, and due to niche conservatism they may still demonstrate 'tropical patterns'). We used case studies that reported the names of the dominant or most abundant species for productive sites.
Results  Woody species were indeed less clonal than herbaceous species. Both clonality and the temperate evolutionary background of dominating species were associated with unimodality in SRPRs, with woodiness modifying the clonality effect.
Main conclusions  The unimodal SRPR has been common in the ecological literature because most such studies originate from temperate herbaceous communities with many clonal species. Consequently, both evolutionary and ecological factors may influence species richness patterns.     

Oviposition behaviour and food plant discrimination in leafhoppers of the genus Oncopsis

Abstract. 1. Field host plants of the six British species of Oncopsis are described. O. avellanae is unusual in being associated with both Corylus and Alnus.
2. Laboratory experiments on nymphal feeding preferences, nymphal and adult survival, and adult oviposition preferences are described for all species, using Carpinus, Corylus, Alnus and Betula species as test plants.
3. All experiments demonstrated considerable specificity in feeding, and especially oviposition.
4. It is suggested that discriminative oviposition behaviour is the major determinant of observed field distribution patterns.     

ON THE BIOLOGY OF THE MITE, GLYCYPHAGUS DOMESTICUS DE GEER. (TYROGLYPHIDAE, ACARINA)

1. A list is given of the mites most commonly found in houses. The most important of these is Glycyphagus domesticus , the furniture mite, and this has been mainly studied during this investigation.
2. An account is given of the occurrence of G. domesticus in houses and the conditions under which it is found.
3. The life history is described. It is characterised by the occurrence of the hypopus, a cyst-like stage which is found only amongst the Tyroglyphidae.
5. Humidity and temperature have a marked effect on the life of the mite. Tables are given showing the effect of ( a ) humidity on the adult, ( b ) humidity and temperature on the hypopus and egg.
6. Some experiments on the effect of carbon tetrachloride and methyl salicylate on the hypopus are recorded.     

ALGAL TRANSGENICS IN THE GENOMIC ERA1

The last few years have witnessed significant advances in the field of algal genomics. Complete genome sequences from the red alga Cyanidioschyzon merolae and the diatom Thalassiosira pseudonana have been published, the genomes for two more algae (Chlamydomonas reinhardtii and Ostreococcus tauri) are nearing completion, and several others are in progress or at the planning stage. In addition, large‐scale cDNA sequencing projects are being carried out for numerous algal species. This wealth of genome data is serving as a powerful catalyst for the development and application of recombinant techniques for these species. The data provide a rich resource of DNA elements such as promoters that can be used for transgene expression as well as an inventory of genes that are possible targets for genetic engineering programs aimed at manipulating algal metabolism. It is not surprising therefore that significant progress in the genetic engineering of eukaryotic algae is being made. Nuclear transformation of various microalgal species is now routine, and progress is being made on the transformation of macroalgae. Chloroplast transformation has been achieved for green, red, and euglenoid algae, and further success in organelle transformation is likely as the number of sequenced plastid, mitochondrial, and nucleomorph genomes continues to grow. Importantly, the commercial application of algal transgenics is beginning to be realized, and algal biotechnology companies are being established. Recent work has shown that recombinant proteins of therapeutic value can be produced in microalgal species, and it is now realistic to envisage the genetic engineering of commercially important species to improve production of valuable algal products. In this article we review the recent progress in algal transgenics and consider possible future developments now that phycology has entered the genomic era.     

FURTHER NOTES ON PAIRING AND SUBMISSIVE BEHAVIOUR OF THE RED-LEGGED PARTRIDGE ALECTORIS RUFA

1. The submissive display is described. It is sometimes given when the bird appears to be simultaneously frightened and attracted by a fellow member of the species.
2. The pairing behaviour of some individual captive birds is described. Some degree of mutual fear and hostility seems to be a necessary correlate of sexual attraction in this species. Birds that know and are at ease with one another do not pair.
3. A young male showed (in autumn) behaviour similar to that of a female ready to pair when introduced to an old and aggressive male. A possible biological function of such behaviour is suggested.