The effect of environmental factors on the nesting and courtship behaviour ofTilapia zillii in Lake Kinneret (Israel)

Tilapia zillii is a polyphilic, guarding nest spawner which is widespread in west and north Africa and in the Middle East. A study of the nesting and courtship behaviour of this species in Lake Kinneret (Sea of Galilee), revealed that nesting and brood care differ according to the exposure of the nesting site to wave action and the nature of the substrate. The nests are simple and parental care is abbreviated in exposed, sandy sites whereas elaborate nests with brood chambers are excavated in sheltered areas with clayey substrates, and parental care is extensive. The implications of these findings to studies on cichlid breeding and the conservation ofT. zillii in Lake Kinneret are discussed.     

Seabird-driven shifts in Arctic pond ecosystems

Migratory animals such as seabirds, salmon and whales can transport large quantities of nutrients across ecosystem boundaries, greatly enriching recipient food webs. As many of these animals biomagnify contaminants, they can also focus pollutants at toxic levels. Seabirds arguably represent the most significant biovectors of nutrients and contaminants from the ocean to the land, given their sheer numbers and global distribution. However, long-term census data on seabirds are rare. Using palaeolimnological proxies, we show that a colony of Arctic seabirds has experienced climate-induced population increases in recent decades. We then document increasing concentrations of contaminants, including polychlorinated biphenyls and cadmium, in pond sediments that are linked to biotransport by seabirds. Our findings suggest that climate-related shifts in global seabird populations will have the unexpected consequence of restructuring coastal ecosystems.     

An experiment on the culture of Tilapia esculenta (Graham) and Tilapia zillii (Gervais) (Cichlidae) in fish ponds

Segregated populations of Tilapia zillii and Tilapia esculenta were kept in artificial ponds. Supplementary food was given and phytoplankton was encouraged by the addition of superphosphate and ammonium sulphate fertilisers. The fry were cropped regularly in an attempt to control population size. A control population of T. zillii was also established in which none of these procedures were carried out.
The growth of T. esculenta was found to be dependent upon the phytoplankton density of the pond whilst T. zillii successfully utilized the supplementary food and grew well. The T. esculenta population also produced more fry than the T. zillii population. The comparative advantages of planktrvorous/brooders and herbivorous/guarders in fish culture are considered.
Despite the fecundity of the species used a population of known composition was maintained by manual cropping of the fry.
The addition of ammonium sulphate to the ponds caused blooms of phytoplankton which in turn had effects upon the base reserves and pH of the water, and probably caused some reduction of oxygen concentration beneath surface scums. This last point is used to explain the changes in phosphate and calcium content of the water also observed.
The low oxygen concentration frequently noted in the mornings probably affected the feeding behaviour of the fishes, and was low enough to have affected metabolism directly.     

Limnological studies of and primary production in temple pond ecosystems

Three temple ponds with permanent blooms of blue green algae were highly productive. They all showed high alkalinity, hardness, electrical conductivity and pH. Organic carbon and nitrogen were highest in Sarvatheertham pond—60 to 79.6 mg./l. C and 4.10 to 7.60 mg./l. N. In Tamaraikulam it was 16.5 to 20.3 mg. C/l. and 1.03 to 1.32 mg. N/l. In Sarvatheertham, the gross production ranged from 2.85 to 20.72 g. O₂/m.²/d. Self shading by blanket algae of blue greens reduced productivity in Sarvatheertham, where a persistent thermal and biochemical stratification was noted. Very high organic carbon and nitrogen contents were noted in Sarvatheertham pond. The dry weight of plankton in this pond ranged from 430 to 900 mg./l. Productivity computed from diurnal changes in alkalinity and dissolved oxygen also revealed a high rate in Ayyankulam, Tamaraikulam and Sarvatheertham in descending order. Very wide fluctuations in pH, both diurnally and depth-wise, were recorded in Sarvatheertham and to a lesser extent in the other two ponds. Photosynthetic efficiency was 4.03% in Ayyankulam, 2.09% in Tamaraikulam and 1.56% in Sarvatheertham. By the diurnal oxygen curve method, a gross primary production of 97.5 g. O₂/m.²/d was recorded in Ayyankulam.     

Resource availability and ecosystem size predict food-chain length in pond ecosystems

Food-chain length (FCL) in ecosystems has been studied extensively, and numerous hypotheses to predict FCL, productivity, ecosystem size, and productive space have been proposed. For example, the productivity hypothesis suggests that resource availability limits FCL, whereas the productive-space hypothesis predicts that per-unit-size resource availability and ecosystem size equally limit FCL. However, previous studies have only measured total productivity to test FCL and have never tested the impact of resource availability within a system on FCL. Therefore, we estimated FCL in 15 ponds using stable isotope techniques to test the most common hypotheses for predicting FCL. We also measured total productivity, pond volume (ecosystem size), and edible microalgal carbon (resource availability) in each pond. We found that productive-space (edible carbon+pond volume) was the best model to predict FCL, and FCL was significantly correlated with edible carbon and pond volume. However, factors such as total productivity did not directly predict FCL of the ponds. Therefore, our results suggest that both resource availability and ecosystem size predict FCL in pond ecosystems and play significant roles in maintaining longer FCLs. Furthermore, the productive-space hypothesis appears to be particularly important for determining the FCL of ponds.     

Mangroves and brackishwater pond culture in the Philippines

Around 50% of mangrove loss in the Philippines can be traced to brackishwater pond construction. The decrease in mangroves from 450 000 ha in 1920 to 132 500 ha in 1990 has been accompanied by expansion of culture ponds to 223 000 ha in 1990. The history of fishpond development in the country includes a government-sponsored fishpond boom in the 1950-g and 1960s, the proconservation decade of the 1970s followed by a shrimp fever in the 1980s. Production from brackisshwater ponds has increased from 15 900 mt worth P7.6 million in 1938 to 267 000 mt valued at P6.5 billion in 1990. On the other hand, the maximum valuation of over $11 000 ha^–1 yr^–1 for unmanaged and managed mangrove forests makes them economically on par with the most profitable pond farming systems. The loss of mangrove systems and their varied goods and services is the single most important consequence of brackishwater pond culture in the Philippines. Moreover, intensive shrimp farming is associated with other ecological and socioeconomic effects such as pollution of coastal waters and decline in domestic food crops. New legislation and enforcement of existing laws, conservation of remaining mangroves, massive rehabilitation of denuded mangrove areas, and promotion of sustainable aquaculture and fisheries are recommended.     

The [extended] maximum entropy formalism and the statistical structure of ecosystems

Biological adaptability has been proved to be analysable by means of the Maximum Entropy Formalism (MAXENT) in some cases of non-interacting systems. This formalism is extended to the biomass statistical structures of populations exhibiting internal interactions (i.e. predatorprey effects).     

Bioproduction of [14C]ochratoxin A in submerged culture.

A number of Aspergillus and Penicillium species were tested for production of ochratoxin A (OA) in several media. After 8 days of static incubations of submerged cultures at 28 degrees C, toxin yields of 25 and 30 micrograms/ml were obtained with Aspergillus alliaceus NRRL 4181 in Ferreirás and 2% yeast extract-4% sucrose media, respectively. However, the largest production observed in the preliminary screening was 54 micrograms/ml; this highest level was produced by A. sulphureus NRRL 4077 in a modified Czapek solution. The medium contained the basal salts and sucrose of Czapek plus urea (3%) and corn steep liquor (0.5% solids). A time study of toxin production demonstrated maximum yield of 350 micrograms/ml by the A. sulphureus isolate in the modified Czapek medium after 11 days of static incubation at 28 degrees C. The optimal production conditions were employed in additional tests designed to measure the efficiency of 14C incorporation from sodium [1-14C]-acetate into OA. Samples (20 microCi) of sodium acetate were added to separate culture flasks at 24-h intervals during the initial 9 days of the fermentation. Addition of [14C]acetate on day 4 of incubation provided the maximum yield of labeled OA. The highest specific activity of labeled toxin obtained was 0.07 microCi/mg of OA and the maximum incorporation rate of labeled acetate was 5.3%.     

Production ofbeauveria bassiana [Deuteromycotina. Hyphomycetes] sympoduloconidia in submerged culture

Submerged conidiation of the entomogenous HyphomyceteBeauveria bassiana is reported. Conidiogenous cells produce sympoduloconidia on conidiogenous cells in liquid shaker culture; hyphal bodies and mycelium fragments are also produced. The morphology of these fungal structures is discussed and illustrated. Several simple liquid media are tested for the production of conidia and hyphal bodies. Maximum yields of conidia (170×10⁶ conidia/ml) are produced in a medium consisting of sucrose (2%) — yeast extract (0.5%) and basal salts, and maximum yields of hyphal bodies (740×10⁶ hyphal bodies/ml) in a sucrose (2.5%) — yeast extract (2.5%) medium.      

Warming alters food web-driven changes in the CO2 flux of experimental pond ecosystems

Evidence shows the important role biota play in the carbon cycle, and strategic management of plant and animal populations could enhance CO₂ uptake in aquatic ecosystems. However, it is currently unknown how management-driven changes to community structure may interact with climate warming and other anthropogenic perturbations to alter CO₂ fluxes. Here we showed that under ambient water temperatures, predators (three-spined stickleback) and nutrient enrichment synergistically increased primary producer biomass, resulting in increased CO₂ uptake by mesocosms in early dawn. However, a 3°C increase in water temperatures counteracted positive effects of predators and nutrients, leading to reduced primary producer biomass and a switch from CO₂ influx to efflux. This confounding effect of temperature demonstrates that climate scenarios must be accounted for when undertaking ecosystem management actions to increase biosequestration.     

Mass and energy flow in closed ecosystems: A comment

Recently Ulanowicz (1972) has proposed a formal framework in which, for a closed ecosystem, the parameters in the equations of population dynamics are related to the parameters of energy flow. In general these relations are not determinate, but Ulanowicz illustrates the method by deriving a sufficient stability condition for the simple three-species straight-chain closed system.We consider a much wider class of special webs for which Ulanowicz's relations are effectively determinate, namely webs which may be articulated into N trophic levels, with the species in any one level being linked in an arbitrary way to those in the levels immediately above and below, and with all species within any one level having a common respiration rate and energy content per unit biomass. The necessary and sufficient condition for ecosystem stability is shown to be that energy content per unit biomass increase in a hierarchical fashion as one climbs the trophic ladder. Some more fragile results are given, and discussed, for the equilibrium biomass ratios between various trophic levels.     

Distribution of Plesiomonas shigelloides in various components of pond ecosystems in Dhaka, Bangladesh.

Plesiomonas shigelloides is considered to be a waterborne agent of human gastroenteritis. An ecological study was carried out in five ponds in Dhaka city over a period of one year to elucidate the distribution and seasonality of this organism in various components of pond ecosystems. Samples were collected from hydrophytes, water, phytoplankton and sediment every 15 days over 12 months and cultured for P. shigelloides. P. shigelloides was isolated from a total of 120 samples including 25 (20.8%), 16 (13.3%), 22 (18.3%) and 35 (29.2%) of hydrophytes, water, phytoplankton and sediment samples, respectively. Distinct seasonal patterns of isolation of P. shigelloides were observed in the four components with two distinct peaks. The highest peaks were observed in hydrophytes and water samples in May and in phytoplankton and sediment in November. P. shigelloides was isolated from all components from all ponds during the study period. These results suggest that P. shigelloides is an autochthonous member in the freshwater pond ecosystems in Dhaka, Bangladesh.     

Screening for fungi capable of removing benzo[a]pyrene in culture

Some 17 strains of filamentous fungi, encompassing 13 different species, were tested for their ability to decolorize the polymeric dye R-478. Decolorization was observed with both living and dead mycelia of the three Aspergillus species tested, indicating bioadsorption, not biodegradation. With mycelia of other strains tested, the most decolorization was obtained with Marasmiellus troyanus, Pleurotus sapidus, and Pleurotus ostreatus; with extracellular filtrates, the most decolorization was observed with Laetiporus sulphureus. Parallel experiments incubating benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) with mycelia and filtrates showed that six of the species removed over 40% of B[a]P in comparison with HgCl₂-killed controls. The highest B[a]P removal by mycelia was shown by M. troyanus (95.0%); the highest level by extracellular filtrates was shown by Hericium erinaceous (44.8%). With the exception of A. ochraceous, no products of B[a]P metabolism were detected for any of the species tested. For most species, the disappearance of B[a]P was correlated with the ability to decolorize poly R-478 ( r = 0.78 for mycelia; r = 0.74 for culture fluids). M. troyanus gave rise to more disappearance than decolorization. The removal of B[a]P by M. troyanus and Phanerochaete chrysosporium was compared over 30 days: M. troyanus gave significantly better removal in a biphasic pattern. Received: 8 July 1996 / Received revision: 11 November 1996 / Accepted: 29 November 1996     

Biomass dependent interactions in pond ecosystems: responses of lower trophic levels to fish manipulations

The effects of mature benthivorous cyprinid fish and theirrecruitment on sediment resuspension, turbidity, phyto- andzooplankton, and benthic macroinvertebrates were studied in fourexperimental ponds. The ponds were stocked with bream (Abramisbrama L.), white bream (Blicca bjoerkna L.), roach (Rutilus rutilus L.) and wild carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) of3+–5+ age classes at standing crop biomass varying from 0 to500 kg ha-1. Cyprinids caused an increase in sedimentresuspension and in turbidity, in proportion to their biomass. Meancrustacean biomass did not significantly affect phytoplanktonbiomass due to intense grazing by fish during spring. Ponds withhigh fish stocks showed reduced midge biomass and vegetation coverand increased biomass of predatory invertebrates.     

Contamination control of microbe Ziziphus spina [christti] seed in vitro culture

Ziziphus spina [christti] is a naturally distributed tree in subtropical, arid and semi-arid parts of Iran. It is ecologically and economically important due to its tolerance to drought and salinity. Most tree seeds are infected with parasitic and saprophytic microorganisms which decrease the seed germination and seedling establishment. The goal of this paper was to evaluate the ability of selected chemical solutions to inhibit the growth of variety of microbial contaminants in Z. spina [christti] seeds and to enhance the seed germination. Different chemical treatments were used in surface sterilization of seeds: (Treatment 1) sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) in concentrations of 1, 2 and 4% for 20 min. (Treatment 2) hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) in concentration of 4, 8, 12% treated for 10 min. (Treatment 3) 1% mercuric chloride (HgCl₂) at duration 10, 15, 20, 25 min. Seeds were scarified and aseptically, planted on agar Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium. Contaminants were identified according to their morphological and cultural characteristics. Bacterial contaminants included Xanthomonas sp. While Fungal isolates were Fusarium, Penicillium, Alternaria, Rhizopus, and Aspergillus. Our experiment reveals that 4% NaOCl followed by benomyl is the best sterilization treatment for Z. spina [christti] seeds, since the highest number of germination and highest number of sterilized seeds was observed after this treatment.