Urban noise and the cultural evolution of bird songs

In urban environments, anthropogenic noise can interfere with animal communication. Here we study the influence of urban noise on the cultural evolution of bird songs. We studied three adjacent dialects of white-crowned sparrow songs over a 30-year time span. Urban noise, which is louder at low frequencies, increased during our study period and therefore should have created a selection pressure for songs with higher frequencies. We found that the minimum frequency of songs increased both within and between dialects during the 30-year time span. For example, the dialect with the highest minimum frequency is in the process of replacing another dialect that has lower frequency songs. Songs with the highest minimum frequency were favoured in this environment and should have the most effective transmission properties. We suggest that one mechanism that influences how dialects, and cultural traits in general, are selected and transmitted from one generation to the next is the dialect''s ability to be effectively communicated in the local environment.     

Experimental evidence for real-time song frequency shift in response to urban noise in a passerine bird

Research has shown that bird songs are modified in different ways to deal with urban noise and promote signal transmission through noisy environments. Urban noise is composed of low frequencies, thus the observation that songs have a higher minimum frequency in noisy places suggests this is a way of avoiding noise masking. Most studies are correlative and there is as yet little experimental evidence that this is a short-term mechanism owing to individual plasticity. Here we experimentally test if house finches (Carpodacus mexicanus) can modulate the minimum frequency of their songs in response to different noise levels. We exposed singing males to three continuous treatments: low–high–low noise levels. We found a significant increase in minimum frequency from low to high and a decrement from high to low treatments. We also found that this was mostly achieved by modifying the frequency of the same low-frequency syllable types used in the different treatments. When different low-frequency syllables were used, those sung during the noisy condition were longer than the ones sang during the quiet condition. We conclude that house finches modify their songs in several ways in response to urban noise, thus providing evidence of a short-term acoustic adaptation.     

Linking optimal foraging behavior to bird community structure in an urban-desert landscape: field experiments with artificial food patches

Urban bird communities exhibit high population densities and low species diversity, yet mechanisms behind these patterns remain largely untested. We present results from experimental studies of behavioral mechanisms underlying these patterns and provide a test of foraging theory applied to urban bird communities. We measured foraging decisions at artificial food patches to assess how urban habitats differ from wildlands in predation risk, missed-opportunity cost, competition, and metabolic cost. By manipulating seed trays, we compared leftover seed (giving-up density) in urban and desert habitats in Arizona. Deserts exhibited higher predation risk than urban habitats. Only desert birds quit patches earlier when increasing the missed-opportunity cost. House finches and house sparrows coexist by trading off travel cost against foraging efficiency. In exclusion experiments, urban doves were more efficient foragers than passerines. Providing water decreased digestive costs only in the desert. At the population level, reduced predation and higher resource abundance drive the increased densities in cities. At the community level, the decline in diversity may involve exclusion of native species by highly efficient urban specialists. Competitive interactions play significant roles in structuring urban bird communities. Our results indicate the importance and potential of mechanistic approaches for future urban bird community studies.     

Sunrise in the city: disentangling drivers of the avian dawn chorus onset in urban greenspaces

Urban systems are known to have a number of effects on avian richness, density, and morphological and behavioral traits. However, no study to date has simultaneously examined the wide range of urban variables in relation to the avian dawn chorus, a complex behavioral phenomenon. Previous studies investigating adjustments of the dawn chorus onset in urban settings have mainly been confined to relationships with noise and light levels. In addition to noise and light levels, in this study we included other potentially related environmental characteristics describing vegetation structure, urban infrastructure, and human activity, all of which have been shown to be drivers of bird diversity in urban areas. We conducted dawn chorus surveys at 38 Los Angeles urban greenspaces and used a classification and regression tree analysis to identify specific urban scenarios that best explained timing differences in the dawn chorus onset. Our results show that light level was the most important variable related to the dawn chorus onset time, in which, counter‐intuitively, bird communities in greenspaces with higher light levels had later onsets. In addition, noise was an important factor for the chorus onset in greenspaces with higher light levels. Although our results differ from those of previous studies, these findings highlight the importance of noise and light levels in explaining dawn chorus onset variation, indicating the need for further research in untangling this complex and ecologically important phenomenon.     

Anthropogenic noise decreases urban songbird diversity and may contribute to homogenization

More humans reside in urban areas than at any other time in history. Protected urban green spaces and transportation greenbelts support many species, but diversity in these areas is generally lower than in undeveloped landscapes. Habitat degradation and fragmentation contribute to lowered diversity and urban homogenization, but less is known about the role of anthropogenic noise. Songbirds are especially vulnerable to anthropogenic noise because they rely on acoustic signals for communication. Recent studies suggest that anthropogenic noise reduces the density and reproductive success of some bird species, but that species which vocalize at frequencies above those of anthropogenic noise are more likely to inhabit noisy areas. We hypothesize that anthropogenic noise is contributing to declines in urban diversity by reducing the abundance of select species in noisy areas, and that species with low‐frequency songs are those most likely to be affected. To examine this relationship, we calculated the noise‐associated change in overall species richness and in abundance for seven common songbird species. After accounting for variance due to vegetative differences, species richness and the abundance of three of seven species were reduced in noisier locations. Acoustic analysis revealed that minimum song frequency was highly predictive of a species' response to noise, with lower minimum song frequencies incurring greater noise‐associated reduction in abundance. These results suggest that anthropogenic noise affects some species independently of vegetative conditions, exacerbating the exclusion of some songbird species in otherwise suitable habitat. Minimum song frequency may provide a useful metric to predict how particular species will be affected by noise. In sum, mitigation of noise may enhance habitat suitability for many songbird species, especially for species with songs that include low‐frequency elements.     

Birdsong and anthropogenic noise: implications and applications for conservation

The dramatic increase in human activities all over the world has caused, on an evolutionary time scale, a sudden rise in especially low-pitched noise levels. Ambient noise may be detrimental to birds through direct stress, masking of predator arrival or associated alarm calls, and by interference of acoustic signals in general. Two of the most important functions of avian acoustic signals are territory defence and mate attraction. Both of these functions are hampered when signal efficiency is reduced through rising noise levels, resulting in direct negative fitness consequences. Many bird species are less abundant near highways and studies are becoming available on reduced reproductive success in noisy territories. Urbanization typically leads to homogenization of bird communities over large geographical ranges. We review current evidence for whether and how anthropogenic noise plays a role in these patterns of decline in diversity and density. We also provide details of a case study on great tits (Parus major), a successful urban species. Great tits show features that other species may lack and make them unsuitable for city life. We hypothesize that behavioural plasticity in singing behaviour may allow species more time to adapt to human-altered environments and we address the potential for microevolutionary changes and urban speciation in European blackbirds (Turdus merula). We conclude by providing an overview of mitigating measures available to abate noise levels that are degrading bird breeding areas. Bird conservationists probably gain most by realizing that birds and humans often benefit from the same or only slightly modified measures.     

Song characteristics track bill morphology along a gradient of urbanization in house finches (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Haemorhous mexicanus</Emphasis>)

Introduction

Urbanization can considerably impact animal ecology, evolution, and behavior. Among the new conditions that animals experience in cities is anthropogenic noise, which can limit the sound space available for animals to communicate using acoustic signals. Some urban bird species increase their song frequencies so that they can be heard above low-frequency background city noise. However, the ability to make such song modifications may be constrained by several morphological factors, including bill gape, size, and shape, thereby limiting the degree to which certain species can vocally adapt to urban settings. We examined the relationship between song characteristics and bill morphology in a species (the house finch, Haemorhous mexicanus) where both vocal performance and bill size are known to differ between city and rural animals.

Results

We found that bills were longer and narrower in more disturbed, urban areas. We observed an increase in minimum song frequency of urban birds, and we also found that the upper frequency limit of songs decreased in direct relation to bill morphology.

Conclusions

These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that birds with longer beaks and therefore longer vocal tracts sing songs with lower maximum frequencies because longer tubes have lower-frequency resonances. Thus, for the first time, we reveal dual constraints (one biotic, one abiotic) on the song frequency range of urban animals. Urban foraging pressures may additionally interact with the acoustic environment to shape bill traits and vocal performance.

     

Community convergence in bird song

Species in similar habitats are often similar in morphology or behaviour, attributed to adaptation to similar environmental selection pressures, sometimes mediated by competitive interactions. For passerine songs, similarity of phenotype in identical habitats and character displacement have been documented, the former due to adaptation to the acoustics of the habitat, and the latter due to competition for acoustic space among species. If these phenomena are widespread, they should lead to community convergence of bird songs. Here, we test if passerine communities in similar habitats converge in song attributes or in acoustic differentiation among species. We compared the songs of European and North American Mediterranean climate passerine communities in open and closed habitats. Song frequency varied across different habitats but not continents. This was independent of both phylogeny and body size, indicating community convergence due to acoustic adaptation, rather than species sorting or similarity as a by-product of another type of ecological convergence. We found little evidence for regular spacing in song features among species, as would be expected if acoustic competition shapes within-community structure. However, for one of five song components, the open habitat communities showed a similar distribution of phenotypes on each continent. The proportion of interspecific variation in song explained by these effects was small. The fact that songs are complex signals that vary in many dimensions may explain why competition for acoustic space seems to be of small importance in structuring songs in these passerine communities.     

Degradation of rural and urban great tit song: testing transmission efficiency

Acoustic signals play a fundamental role in avian territory defence and mate attraction. Several studies have now shown that spectral properties of bird song differ between urban and rural environments. Previously this has been attributed to competition for acoustic space as a result of low-frequency noise present in cities. However, the physical structure of urban areas may have a contributory effect. Here we investigate the sound degradation properties of woodland and city environments using both urban and rural great tit song. We show that although urban surroundings caused significantly less degradation to both songs, the transmission efficiency of rural song compared to urban song was significantly lower in the city. While differences between the two songs in woodland were generally minimal, some measures of the transmission efficiency of rural song were significantly lower than those of urban song, suggesting additional benefits to singing rural songs in this setting. In an attempt to create artificial urban song, we mimicked the increase in minimum frequency found several times previously in urban song. However, this did not replicate the same transmission properties as true urban song, suggesting changes in other song characteristics, such as temporal adjustments, are needed to further increase transmission of an avian signal in the city. We suggest that the structure of the acoustic environment, in addition to the background noise, plays an important role in signal adaptation.     

Alien species richness is currently unbounded in all but the most urbanized bird communities

Urban areas suffer high pressure of introductions of alien species compared to other habitats due to intensive human activities. As trading globally continues to rise, more species will likely be introduced into urban areas. To determine whether this increase in introduction pressure will lead to increased alien species richness in urban areas, or whether other processes would act to impose an upper limit on species richness, we examined how the shape of the relationship between alien species richness and the number of introduced species over time (i.e. introduction pressure) varies along gradients of urbanization. We collected species composition data from urban bird surveys worldwide and used a global database of alien bird introductions to quantify how many species have been introduced over time at different sites. We found that urbanization gradually modified the shape of the studied relationship from linear to asymptotic. Only communities in extremely urbanized environments were associated with an asymptotic relationship, suggesting that alien bird richness has likely not reached its ecological limit in most urban areas. Our results show that urbanization can reduce the importance of introduction pressure in determining alien species richness. Additionally, the results predict that alien species richness will increase at finer spatial scales, especially if the introduced species can survive in urban areas outside of their native range.     

上海闵行区园林鸟类群落嵌套结构

城市中的园林绿地呈现斑块状分布,其栖息地特征与岛屿栖息地相似。2008年11月至2009年10月,对上海市闵行区内的7块城市绿地进行调查,记录雀形目鸟类的分布情况,并运用Nestedness temperature calculator软件,检验其群落结构是否符合嵌套结构。运用Arc GIS软件分析该地区的卫星图片,收集7块样地的面积、绿地盖度、水源距离和人为干扰程度等数据,结合实地调查所得到的数据,分析这一嵌套结构的形成原因和影响因素。结果显示：上海市闵行区城市绿地中的雀形目鸟类分布是显著的嵌套结构,园林面积、绿地面积和水源情况都对其嵌套结构有显著影响。但是与真正岛屿上存在的群落分布嵌套结构不同,人为干扰程度对这一结构也有非常明显的影响。基于上述结果可以看出,影响上海市园林鸟类的群落嵌套结构的主要原因是栖息地的结构和人为干扰程度。因此,建议在规划和建设城市公园和绿地时,应该偏重于面积较大,植被盖度和丰富度高,结构合理的园林,并且尽量减少人为干扰。     

Spectral Overlap in Songs and Temporal Avoidance in a Peruvian Bird Assemblage

Acoustic signals are very important in communication among conspecifics for many animals, especially in relatively dark, densely foliated habitat such as tropical rainforest. However, as many species all have to use the same acoustic space, this may lead to interference and masking. Songs will function efficiently in attracting mates or defending territories depending on the level of spectral and temporal overlap with songs of other species in the local community. As signal efficiency has direct fitness consequences, organisms may have evolved a strategy to avoid competition for acoustic space. We hypothesize that, as a consequence, species in a complex rainforest community may show spectral segregation or temporal avoidance: singing at a different frequency or at a different time. As doing both is superfluous and acoustic space is limited, we expect a negative correlation between spectral and temporal overlap. We tested this hypothesis in recordings of 20 vocally dominant bird species from 14 families in a Peruvian rainforest. Using pair‐wise comparisons between bird species, we found one significant correlation between spectral overlap and temporal overlap. All others were non‐significant. However, we did find that, at frequencies more often used by multiple bird species, there was significantly less overlap than expected if all species were just singing randomly ignorant of each other’s songs. Our analyses indicate that short‐term auditory feedback mechanisms may also operate in the biodiverse environments of the tropics and may explain part of the community dynamics of acoustic signalling in the rainforest.     

Body size correlates negatively with the frequency of distress calls and songs of Neotropical birds

ABSTRACT The allometric relationship between body size and song frequency has been established in previous studies of temperate and tropical bird communities. However, the relationship between body size and the frequency of distress calls has been examined in only one study of temperate birds. We examined size‐frequency relationships in the distress calls and songs of a Neotropical bird community in northwestern Costa Rica. In 2008 and 2009, we recorded distress calls and determined the body mass of 54 mist‐netted birds representing 38 species, 35 genera, and 14 families. We obtained songs for these same species from sound libraries and commercially available compact discs. For each vocalization, we measured minimum frequency and frequency of maximum amplitude. Larger birds produced lower‐frequency distress calls and songs than smaller birds. Phylogenetically controlled analyses revealed that the frequency of maximum amplitude was negatively correlated with body mass for both distress calls and songs. Minimum frequency was negatively correlated with mass for distress calls, but not songs. Our analyses suggest that the influence of phylogeny on the relationship between frequency characteristics and body size is modest. Pair‐wise comparisons across 37 species revealed that distress calls and songs had similar minimum frequencies, but songs had significantly lower frequencies of maximum amplitude than distress calls. This difference may arise from differences in signal function. Lower‐frequency sounds should transmit farther through forest habitats and songs must often transmit longer distances to reach their intended audience than distress calls. Our results support the general theory that body size is negatively correlated with the frequency of acoustic signals by demonstrating that this pattern holds true for both distress calls and songs in a Neotropical bird community.     

人为干扰对武汉市城市绿地鸟类群落结构的影响

城市绿地生态系统是城市景观的重要组成部分,具有重要的生态与文化价值。鸟类是城市绿地生态系统的指示类群,研究人类活动对鸟类资源的影响能够为城市生态景观的建设与维护提供重要理论依据。本研究于2021年10月至2022年5月,采用样线法对武汉市不同干扰强度的城市绿地内林鸟群落进行调查。共记录到鸟类11目34科100种,其中国家二级重点保护鸟类9种,在物种组成上以雀形目为主(76种,占调查到总鸟种数的76%),在居留型上以留鸟为主(42种,42%),在区系上主要属于东洋界(45种,45%)。繁殖季鸟类物种数高于非繁殖季,主要是由于夏候鸟和旅鸟的增加导致。在不同干扰强度中,重度干扰斑块的平均鸟类个体数最多,轻度干扰斑块的鸟类物种丰富度、多样性指数和均匀度指数最高,而中度干扰斑块的鸟类个体数、物种丰富度、多样性指数和均匀度指数均为最低,且繁殖季和非繁殖季鸟类群落结构在不同人为干扰强度中的格局未发生变化。综上所述,武汉市城市绿地的鸟类多样性较为丰富,随着干扰强度增加,鸟类多样性出现非线性差异,揭示了人为干扰与自然干扰对生态影响的差异;在面积狭小、破碎化严重的斑块中,人为干扰可能有利于城市绿地鸟类多样性的维持。     

Linking foraging decisions to residential yard bird composition

Urban bird communities have higher densities but lower diversity compared with wildlands. However, recent studies show that residential urban yards with native plantings have higher native bird diversity compared with yards with exotic vegetation. Here we tested whether landscape designs also affect bird foraging behavior. We estimated foraging decisions by measuring the giving-up densities (GUD; amount of food resources remaining when the final forager quits foraging on an artificial food patch, i.e seed trays) in residential yards in Phoenix, AZ, USA. We assessed how two yard designs (mesic: lush, exotic vegetation; xeric: drought-tolerant and native vegetation) differed in foraging costs. Further, we developed a statistical model to calculate GUDs for every species visiting the seed tray. Birds foraging in mesic yards depleted seed trays to a lower level (i.e. had lower GUDs) compared to birds foraging in xeric yards. After accounting for bird densities, the lower GUDs in mesic yards appeared largely driven by invasive and synanthropic species. Furthermore, behavioral responses of individual species were affected by yard design. Species visiting trays in both yard designs had lower GUDs in mesic yards. Differences in resource abundance (i.e., alternative resources more abundant and of higher quality in xeric yards) contributed to our results, while predation costs associated with foraging did not. By enhancing the GUD, a common method for assessing the costs associated with foraging, our statistical model provided insights into how individual species and bird densities influenced the GUD. These differences we found in foraging behavior were indicative of differences in habitat quality, and thus our study lends additional support for native landscapes to help reverse the loss of urban bird diversity.     

Signalling through acoustic windows: nightingales avoid interspecific competition by short-term adjustment of song timing

The function of bird song is closely linked to sexual selection through female choice and male–male competition, and thus variation in communication success is likely to have major fitness consequences for a singing male. A crucial constraint on signal transmission is imposed by background noise, which may include songs from other species. I investigated whether singing nightingales (Luscinia megarhynchos) avoid temporal overlap with the songs of other bird species in a playback experiment. I analysed the temporal song patterns of six males, each of which were exposed to songs of other species. The nightingales significantly avoided overlapping their songs with the playback songs, and started singing preferentially during the silent intervals between the heterospecific songs. This timing of song onset produced a greater variability in pause duration compared to the nightingales’ undisturbed solo singing. These findings suggest that birds adjust their song timing to avoid acoustic interference on short temporal scales, and thus are able to improve the efficiency of acoustic communication in complex sonic environments. Moreover, the results indicate that temporal song patterns can be affected by the songs of other species, and thus such influences should be taken into account when studying bird song in the field.     

城市化鸟类群落变化及其与城市植被的关系

持续而快速的城市化进程正在助长全球生物多样性的丧失,其中鸟类是城市生态系统的重要环节和城市生物多样性保护的重点目标,同时也是研究的热点内容。从城市环境变化压力下,鸟类群落组成与结构、空间分布和繁殖营巢方式的改变分析,重点介绍了支持城市地区鸟类多样性的植物环境因素与影响机制的最新研究成果。结果表明：1）城市中的植被和绿色空间为城市鸟类提供生存空间和食物资源,是城市鸟类最主要的栖息地。2）保留原生乡土植物和大型树木的地区能支持更丰富的鸟类物种。3）植被的结构和盖度对鸟类群落有显著影响。林冠覆盖率增加,复杂的垂直空间和多样的植物种类的组合产生各种不同类型的植物空间和栖息地类型,吸引不同的鸟类物种,相应地也会导致更丰富的鸟类群落。总之,保持和加强城市中植物环境良好和稳定是保护城市生物多样性的有效手段。据此,提出城市环境与鸟类群落关系研究的未来发展方向,指出了其在鸟类多样性保护和城市可持续发展等领域的应用前景。     

Winter Bird Assemblages in Rural and Urban Environments: A National Survey

Urban development has a marked effect on the ecological and behavioural traits of many living organisms, including birds. In this paper, we analysed differences in the numbers of wintering birds between rural and urban areas in Poland. We also analysed species richness and abundance in relation to longitude, latitude, human population size, and landscape structure. All these parameters were analysed using modern statistical techniques incorporating species detectability. We counted birds in 156 squares (0.25 km2 each) in December 2012 and again in January 2013 in locations in and around 26 urban areas across Poland (in each urban area we surveyed 3 squares and 3 squares in nearby rural areas). The influence of twelve potential environmental variables on species abundance and richness was assessed with Generalized Linear Mixed Models, Principal Components and Detrended Correspondence Analyses. Totals of 72 bird species and 89,710 individual birds were recorded in this study. On average (±SE) 13.3 ± 0.3 species and 288 ± 14 individuals were recorded in each square in each survey. A formal comparison of rural and urban areas revealed that 27 species had a significant preference; 17 to rural areas and 10 to urban areas. Moreover, overall abundance in urban areas was more than double that of rural areas. There was almost a complete separation of rural and urban bird communities. Significantly more birds and more bird species were recorded in January compared to December. We conclude that differences between rural and urban areas in terms of winter conditions and the availability of resources are reflected in different bird communities in the two environments.     

Environmental and socio‐economic factors related to urban bird communities

Urban fauna communities may be strongly influenced by environmental and socio‐economic factors, but the relative importance of these factors is poorly known. Most research on urban fauna has been conducted in large cities and it is unclear if the patterns found in these locations coincide with those from smaller human settlements. We examined the relative importance of environmental and socio‐economic factors in explaining variation in urban bird communities across 72 neighbourhoods in 18 regional towns in south‐eastern Australia. Native bird species richness varied from 6 to 32 across neighbourhoods and was higher in neighbourhoods with more nectar‐rich plants. Variation in bird species diversity across neighbourhoods was also strongly positively related to the density of nectar‐rich plants, but was higher also in neighbourhoods with higher socio‐economic status (reflecting higher levels of disposal income, education and home ownership). The density of native birds across neighbourhoods per season varied from 1 to 15 birds per hectare and was lower in neighbourhoods with a greater cover of impervious surfaces. The density of exotic birds (introduced to Australia) per season also varied across neighbourhoods (0–13 birds per hectare) and was lower in neighbourhoods with more nectar‐rich plants and higher in neighbourhoods with greater impervious surface cover. Our results demonstrated that the vegetation characteristics of household gardens, along streetscapes and in urban parklands had a strong influence on the richness and diversity of urban bird communities. The density of native and exotic birds varied primarily in response to changes in the built environment (measured through impervious surface cover). Socio‐economic factors had relatively little direct influence on urban birds, but neighbourhood socio‐economics may influence bird communities indirectly through the positive relationship between socio‐economic status and vegetation cover recorded in our study area.     

Noisy human neighbours affect where urban monkeys live

Urban areas and many natural habitats are being dominated by a new selection pressure: anthropogenic noise. The ongoing expansion of urban areas, roads and airports throughout the world makes the noise almost omnipresent. Urbanization and the increase of noise levels form a major threat to living conditions in and around cities. Insight into the behavioural strategies of urban survivors may explain the sensitivity of other species to urban selection pressures. Here, we show that urban black-tufted marmosets (Callithrix penicillata) living in noisy urban areas may select their home-range based primarily on ambient noise level. We have tested the hypothesis that the noise from vehicular traffic and visitors in an urban park in Brazil influences the use of home-range (space) by urban marmosets. Marmosets even avoided noisy areas with high food availability. In addition, they systematically preferred the quieter areas even with dynamic changes in the acoustic landscape of the park between weekdays and Sundays (no observations were made on Saturdays). These data provide evidence that the use of home-range by wild animals can be affected by a potential aversive stimulus such as noise pollution.